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Welcome to Access to Agriculture. Hopefully, through this page you will be able to better understand the different ways to feed the world, as well as the difficulties in trying to do so. Although we will mainly be concerned with the different types of agriculture, let's first take a look at the different types of food getting. The following terms have been defined by Ferraro(2):

Food collection is a form of subsistence that relies on the procurement of animal and plant resources found in the natural environment.

Horticulture is a form of small-scale crop cultivation characterized by the use of simple technology and the absence of irrigation.

Pastoralism is a food getting strategy based on animal husbandry found in regions of the world that are generally under suited for agriculture.

Agriculture is a form of food production that requires intensive working of the land with plows and draft animals and the use of techniques of soil and water control.

Industrialization is a process resulting in the economic change from home production of goods to large scale mechanized factory production.

My main focus will be on agriculture, including the different types of agriculture. The following is a list of the varying types of agriculture and their definitions (taken from Raven 4):

High-input agriculture (a.k.a. industrialized agriculture) relies on large inputs of energy in the form of fossil fuels. The environmental effects are listed in the section on the U.S. and its role in the use of industrialized agriculture.

Alternative agriculture (sustainable or low-input agriculture) is a method that relies on beneficial biological processes and environmentally friendly chemicals rather than conventional agricultural techniques. . For example, apple growers in Maryland monitor and encourage the presence of black ladybird beetles in their orchards because these insects feed veraciously on European red mites, a major pest of apples. This practice, although it is a very successful form of pest management, does not require the use of any pesticides. Crop selection is also another form of natural pest management. The following is an example of this. In parts of Oregon apples can be grown without major pest problems, but peaches are often infested with insects. However, in western Colorado, apples have major problems, but peaches do well. Therefore, apples would be the preferred crops of alternative agriculture in Oregon, as would peaches in Colorado. The typical sustainable farm consists of field crops, trees that bear fruits and nuts, small herds of livestock and even tracts of forest.

Subsistence agriculture is the production of enough food to feed oneself and one's family with little left over to sell or reserve for bad times.

Shifting agriculture involves clearing a small patch of tropical land to plant crops. Typically, the soil is depleted of nutrients within a few years and the plot must be abandoned.

Slash-and-burn agriculture is a type of shifting agriculture in which the forest is cut down, allowed to dry, and burned; the crops that are planted immediately afterwards thrive because the ashes provide nutrients. In a few years, however, the soil is depleted and the land must be abandoned.

Nomadic herding is a type of subsistence agriculture in which livestock is supported on land too arid for successful crop growth. Nomadic herding is land intensive because the herders must continually move the animals in order to provide them with enough forage.

As you may or may not know, the United States uses industrialized agriculture. This method is often seen as a great way to provide large quantities of crops to feed large numbers of people. "Science and technology have enabled agriculture to become increasingly productive, to produce abundant harvests by manipulating Nature, and to increase the quality of life in most areas of the world " (11). This causes many problems, however. These modern methods of agriculture aid in the destruction of the environment cause economic and social break downs in rural communities as well as aid in the degradation of human health (11). When the production of food and fiber degrades the natural resource base, the ability of future generations to produce and flourish decreases.

The following are effects of modern agriculture on the environment: http://www.sarep.ucdavis.edu/concept.htm

Water supply and use: In California, an extensive water storage and transfer system has been established which has allowed crop production to expand to very arid regions. In drought years, limited surface water supplies have prompted overdraft of groundwater and consequent intrusion of salt water, or permanent collapse of aquifers. (For more information on this topic click here.)

Water quality: The most important issues related to water quality involve salinization and contamination of ground and surface waters by pesticides, nitrates and selenium. (For more information on this topic click here.)

Wildlife: Another way in which agriculture affects water resources is through the destruction of riparian habitats within watersheds. The conversion of wild habitat to agricultural land reduces fish and wildlife through erosion and sedimentation, the effects of pesticides, removal of riparian plants, and the diversion of water. The plant diversity in and around both riparian and agricultural areas should be maintained in order to support a diversity of wildlife.

Energy: Modern agriculture is heavily dependent on non-renewable energy sources, especially petroleum. The continued use of these energy sources cannot be sustained indefinitely, yet to abruptly abandon our reliance on them would be economically catastrophic.

Air: Many agricultural activities affect air quality. These include smoke from agricultural burning; dust from tillage, traffic and harvest; pesticide drift from spraying; and nitrous oxide emissions from the use of nitrogen fertilizer. Options to improve air quality include incorporating crop residue into the soil, using appropriate levels of tillage, and planting wind breaks, cover crops or strips of native perennial grasses to reduce dust.

Soil: Soil erosion continues to be a serious threat to our continued ability to produce adequate food. Numerous practices have been developed to keep soil in place, which include reducing or eliminating tillage, managing irrigation to reduce runoff, and keeping the soil covered with plants or mulch.

Many organizations are currently in the process of trying to develop newer and better ways of farming that aren't so harmful to the environment, while others simply try and control the amount of harm done (to the planet as well as to ourselves). One such method would be to change our current method of agriculture to a less damaging one called "sustainable" or "alternative" agriculture. With this method everything is done in an environmentally safe and ecologically friendly way.

Agriculture is not only crops, but includes other foods as well, such as meat, fish, poultry… basically if one considers it a food it is part of agriculture. The problems with the current "modern" farming methods have already been discussed. What most of us are probably not aware of is the amount of food produced annually in the U.S. Take meat for example. Did you know that 151,901,642 animals were slaughtered so far in the U.S. in 1999 solely for human consumption (see Total Animals Slaughtered for Meat U.S. 1999)? This includes beef, veal, lamb, pork, chicken, turkey, and horse.

Fish along with numerous other sea creatures, like all other food sources, has its share of problems. One problem is that due to the large size of the aquatic biomes, we are not truly certain of the amount of resources we still have available. In other words, no one is exactly sure just how much seafood we have left to eat. However, the statistics we do have show that we have an ever-increasing problem. As with any other food source, as our population increases, it places more demands on the earth and the animals with which we share it. As of 1996, the U.S. alone the total amount of all seafood "produced" was 3,580,105. This does not include animals deemed inedible, nor those killed in a catch and thrown back. Of those "produced," 48,515 of them were exported to other countries. It has now gotten to the point where a well known fish, swordfish, are being killed off at a younger and younger age every year, and are now usually killed before they even have a chance to reproduce. Over 20 years ago, the average weight of a swordfish caught was 1200 lbs. Today, the average is 90 lbs. (Time magazine). Not only do we have to worry about their numbers dropping off, but water pollution as well. There may be large numbers of an animal, that could otherwise be caught and eaten, but if it is chock full of poisons and pollutants, we can't eat it anyway. This problem is not one that may or may not manifest itself some time in the future, but is instead a very current one. Even worse yet are those animals that are edible (such as sharks) which are being killed not for food, but instead simply for their fins.

Dolphins and tuna are also having problems. One of the dolphins' biggest problems, in fact, is tuna. When fisherman fish for tuna, they use large nets that they simply toss into the ocean and then collect the tuna. This works out great, and it is the easiest way to collect large quantities of tuna. The problem is that dolphin also like tuna, and will usually stay close to the schools. This close proximity to the nets causes them to also be scooped up in them (along with the large amounts of tuna). Once they are caught, they usually drown. They become entangled, and are then unable to surface to breathe. Those that are brought up in the nets are usually in too bad of shape (being sliced alive by the netting) to be put back. Pollution, heavy boat traffic, habitat destruction, and competition with fisheries also affect dolphins, particularly coastal animals. In the recent past, bottlenose dolphins have been taken directly for meat, leather, oil, and meal (for fertilizer and animal feed).

WHAT CAN WE DO TO HELP?

There are several things that one can do to help this current situation. The following organizations that may be able to better answer some of your questions or concerns:

Cropland use and urbanization¨ Concentration and structural change in U.S. agriculture ¨ International Institute for Ecological Agriculture¨ The Permaculture Activist¨ Kevin Wolfe and Associates¨ MAC's Extension links page¨ Henry A. Wallace Institute for Alternative Agriculture Alternative Farming System Information Center¨ National Agricultural Library¨ Sustainable Farming Connection¨ Living Laboratories Inc.¨ University of California Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program¨
For More Educational Information On:

Agriculture and Processed Foods¨ Agricultural Statistics¨ Brazil, Fishery Statistics¨ Total Animals Slaughtered for Meat U.S. 1999¨ U.S. Cereals Production 1999¨U.S. Cereals Yield 1999¨ U.S. Vegetable & Melon Production 1999¨ U.S. Vegetable & Melon Yield 1999¨ U.S. Veg. Oils & Fats Production 1999¨ U.S. Stocks of Live Animals 1999¨ Venezuela

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Thank you for visiting my site!

Any questions, concerns or comments please feel free to e-mail me.

drosenst@falcon.lhup.edu

Bibliography

1. Cunningham and Sago, Environmental Science. 6^th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York NY

2. Ferraro, G., 1998. Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective. 3^rd ed. West/Wadsworth, Albany NY.

3. Enger, E. D. and Smith, B. 1998. Environmental Science: A Study of Interrelationships. 6^th ed. McGraw-Hill, New York NY.

4. Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G. 1998. Environment. 2^nd ed. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia PA.

5. Reed, R., 1997. Forest Dwellers, Forest Protectors. Boston MA, Allyn and Bacon.

6. U.S. Gov. (1999, January 11). America's National Wildlife Refuges… Where Wildlife Comes Naturally! U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service National Wildlife Refuge System.
<http://refuges.fws.gov/NWRSHomePage.html> (9/19/99).

7. U.S. Gov. (1999, April). United States Department of Agriculture. USDA Home Page.
<http://www.usda.gov/usda.htm> (9/19/99).

8. I.I.E.A. (1999, June 21). International Institute For Ecological Agriculture. I.I.E.A. Home Page.

<http://www.permaculture-institute.org/> (9/19/99)

9. Purdue University. Purdue University Office of Agricultural Research Programs. Formerly The Purdue Agricultural Equipment Station.

<http://www.aes.purdue.edu/agresearch/agreswww.html> (9/19/99).

10. CAST (1999, September 14). The Science Source For Food, Agriculture and Environmental Issues. CAST Home Page.

<http://www.cast-science.org/> (9/19/99).

11. WSAA. World Sustainable Agriculture Association. WSAA Home Page.

<http://www.igc.apc.org/wsaala/wsaa.html>

12. FAO. Food For All. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Home Page.

<http://www.fao.org/>