Welcome to my website on Land Conservation. Land Conservation is a very important topic to discuss. Since man was first on Earth there was land for him to walk on, land for him to grow food, and land for him to build his home and raise his family. Two hundred years ago America was a vast wilderness filled with an abundent amount of resources. Today only a small remnant of these undisturbed wildlands remain. Most of these lands are being managed by four agencies; one belongs to the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the other three belong to the U.S. Department of the Interior. These four agencies manage and protect public lands, including National Parks, National Forests, Wildlife refuges, and Wilderness areas that make up the federal estate. We will look at these four agencies closer as we go through some main and important aspects of Land Conservation.
 
 

Public lands consist of seven hundred and twenty six million acres of land that is owned by the American people and is managed by the federal government. These lands include--National Forests, National Parks, Bureau of Land Management lands, National Wildlife Refuges, Historic and Cultural Sites, and the Wilderness areas. These Wilderness areas are valuable for many reasons.

Three quarters of these areas contain prehistoric or historic cultural sites.

Half are home to Endangered or Threatened Species.

These areas constitute a setting in which nature and evolution can proceed relatively undisturbed, providing an important scientific laboratory.

These areas maintain essential natural processes that support our economic growth, such as natural purification of water supplies.
 
 

Public lands constitute a vast textbook of American History. They tell stories of ancient seas, stone-age hunters and artists, pioneers and mining towns, Civil War Battles and the fight for Civil Rights. When we visit public lands in the Badlands of South Dakota, we walk among sixty million year old dinosaur tracks, while in the point Reyes National Seashore of California, we walk in the footsteps of Sir Frances Drake, the 16^th Century conquistador. On other lands we glimpse at twelve thousand years of Native American cultures, George Washington's birth place in Virginia, the Gettysburg Military park in Pennsylvania, Fort Laramie in Wyoming, the Wright Brothers National Monument in North Carolina--all parts of the public estate. The public estate also provides a home to twelve million acres of lakes, reservoirs, streams, and rivers. (10)
 
 

Public lands were set aside by past Congresses. Enacted laws were established to govern these lands so they would not be subject to federal laws. Congress wanted to protect the public lands from exploitation for sake of short-term profits by the government, industry, or individuals. They wanted to ensure the lands were managed to meet widely accepted societal goals including the following:

Recreation- hiking, fishing, skiing, canoeing, camping, visiting historic sites, etc.

Protection of habitats for endangered and threatened species

Support for ecosystems that have all but died out on private lands (e.g. grasslands)

Wetland preservation, for water purification, flood control, and protection of wildlife

Protection of the small remnant of wilderness left to us -- for the sheer wonder of it!

Preservation of the geologic and archaelogical record
 
 

It is very hard to believe that eight hundred and twenty two species were endangered or threatened with extinction in February of 1994 in this country. What is harder to believe is that hundreds these species make their homes on public lands. National Forests harbor two hundred and seventy of these species. Public lands are at risk of becoming extinct too if we don't start conserving our greatest resource--land. Several industries have a lot to gain if public lands are sold or transferred to states.

 
 

Mining industry eager to exploit mineral resources of the land

Timber companies want to get a hold of the trees

Ranchers want more land devoted just to grazing

These activities are allowed on most public lands but they are regulated to minimize the damage to the environment. If the lands were sold to these industries or given to the states most of the current protections would no longer be enforced. Companies would be allowed to use the cheapest and most damaging methods on even the most valuable lands. An example of this would be that timber companies would be able to clear cut ancient forests without anyone's review or approval.
 
 

This is a very important issue to those companies that want to get a piece of the public lands. Some claim that by selling these lands it would help reduce our national debt but this is a false statement. Land sales might earn a little money but would bring major losses in the long run. We would lose not only intangible, non-monetary assets but also significant economic benefits. An example of how selling off these lands would not be economically beneficial is the estimated annual revenues from the sale of Bureau of Land Management lands and the leasing of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge. Together this would amount to only one half of one percent of the annual interest payments on the national debt.

At best, giving away or selling these public lands would result in the creation of some short-term jobs. A good example of this would involve logging. Laborers are required to cut down a forest, but when the trees are gone--so are the jobs. On the other hand, high quality natural environments are increasingly valuable economic assets to communities.

attract businesses

new workers

visitors

supply jobs
 
 

The National Park Service estimates that park visitors contribute more than $8 million to local economies--and that is excluding indirect economic benefits, which are substantial.

The Forest Service estimates the annual net related economic value of sport fishing on lands under its jurisdiction at $ 1.2 billion.

The Bureau of Land Management estimates the value of recreational fishing on its lands at $56 million.

Regarding public lands overall, BLM estimates the net value of hunting at $200 million, hiking and horseback riding at $20.8 million and camping at $99.4 million.

Management Goal: To permit a variety of uses, including recreation, timber harvesting, fish and wildlife habitat and livestock grazing, under the multiple use and sustained yield standards.

Number of Units: 156 individual forests; 20 grassland units.

Activities permitted: Virtually all non-consumptive and economic uses. Logging is the chief economic use; recreation is far and away the largest dollar-valued output.

Cost of Operating: $1,345,112,000 (total FY95 appropriated amount). (11)
 
 

Management Goal: To conserve and protect fish and wildlife.

Number of Units: 504 Refuges.

Activities permitted: Hunting, fishing and other recreational activities along with economic uses that are compatible with the purposes for which particular refuges were established. Oil & gas development and livestock grazing are among the economic uses allowed on lands in the refuge system. Millions visit refuges every year.

Cost of Operating: $219,000,000 (estimated FY95 expenditure). (11)
 
 

Management Goal: To protect parks from significant degradation so that future as well as current generations can enjoy them.

Number of Units: 368, including the newest park, Death Valley National Park in California.

Activities Permitted: Hiking, camping, and other recreational activities. Millions of visitors enjoy this wide variety of activites each year.

Cost of Management: $1,079,963,000 (total FY95 appropriated amount) (11)
 
 

Bureau of Land Management

Management Goal: To permit a variety of uses, including recreation, livestock grazing, fish and wildlife habitat, mineral production and timber harvesting under the multiple use and sustained yield standard.

Number of Units; 59 districts, subdivided into 137 resource areas.

Activities Permitted: Virtually all non-consumptive and economic uses under the multiple use and sustained yield standard. The most extensive economic activity is livestock grazing; millions if visitors enjoy recreational opportunities annually.

Cost of Management: $598,449,000 (total FY95 appropriated amount). (11)
 
 

Forest certification is a means of protecting forests by promoting environmentally responsible forestry practices. Forests are evaluated based on international standards and certified as well as managed by a qualified independent auditor. Wood or the wood products from these certified forests are then labeled so that the consumer can identify them. Many feel that this certification will help protect our forests. The demand for certified products will be a powerful incentive for forest managers to adopt a more ecologically sound practice. In addition, it promotes retailers and manufacturers to seek out wood that is from a certified forest.
 
 

A well-managed forest satisfies standards of environmentally, socially, and economically sound management. These standards ensure the long-term health and productivity of forests so timber production, wildlife habitat and water quality protection remain intact. It also must provide social benefits such as lasting community development. The Forest Stewardship Council establishes the standards for a well-managed forest. It is a non-profit, independent organization made up of environmental groups, the timber trade, forestry professionals, indigenous people's and community forestry organizations and certifiers. (11)
 
 

The ecological benefits of America's public lands are numerous and profound. These lands include a vast amount of ecosystems--tropical and temperate rainforests, mountains, wetlands, deserts, canyons, prairies, alpine meadows and tundra, a number of which are virtually extinct on private lands. For example, the last 1% of our native grasslands are on public lands. The last 5% of our virgin forests that once covered the continent are also on public lands. Since our nation was founded, the lower 48 states have lost more than half of their original wetlands to agricultural and other development.
 
 

Forests were once viewed as a storehouse of raw materials for economic development. We now understand that forests are complex ecosystems that must be treated carefully and skillfully. Society is now demanding a higher level of resource stewardship to conserve and protect a wide array of forest-related values.
 
 

When logging first began in the nineteenth century, our natural resources seemed virtually inexhaustable. The main concern was to harvest timber on the most economical fashion. Over the past decade, greater emphasis has been placed on other resource values. Many other factors are considered when in the harvesting plans such as:

fish ------------------------------------------------ recreation

wildlife -------------------------------------------- aesthetics

water --------------------------------------------- biodiversity

forage

A silvicultural system is a set of forestry activities, including harvesting, regeneration and tending, that is applied to an individual stand within a forest to meet specific resource management objectives over the life of the forest. There are two main systems and they are Even-aged and Uneven-aged.

Silviculture strives to:

Shorten production time

Improve product utility

Harness the full productivity of the site

Sustain yields of products over time
 
 

The two systems of Silviculture are:

Even-Aged System------------------------------------------------Uneven-aged System
 
 

Clearcut---------------------------------------------------------------------------------Selection

Patch cut

Clearcut with reserves

Seedtree

Shelterwood

Coppice
 
 

The names of these silvicultural systems reflect the type of forest structure remaining after the initial harvest. Clearcutting means the felling and removal of all trees from a given tract of forest. Clearcutting can destroy an area's ecological integrity in a number of ways, including:

The destruction of buffer zones which reduce the severity of flooding by absorbing and holding water

The immediate removal of forest canopy, which destroys the habitat for many rainforest-dependent insects and bacteria

The elimination of fish and wildlife species due to soil erosion and habitat loss

The loss of small-scale economic opportunities, such as fruit-picking, sap extraction, and rubber tapping

The destruction of aesthetic values and recreational opportunities
 
 

Intact and healthy forests play a very large role in supporting all forms of life on Earth. To many environmentalists, the finality of clearcutting is viewed as an ecological tragedy.

 
 
 
 

The second two systems that will be discussed are also from the Even-aged System. Seedtree is when scattered trees of a preferred species remain. This occurs when approximately five to ten trees remain per acre. Shelterwood is when twice as many trees are left per acre than what were cut. The stands of the mature trees are harvested later in two or more cuttings. (12)
 
 
 
 
 

Selection is the only environmentally sound system of timber management. This occurs when only the most mature trees are cut. Consequently, this allows most of the stand to grow and produce more seedlings. Unfortunately, there is a down fall in selection management. Many feel that it has become "high-grading" (taking the best and leaving the rest), and reproduction in harvested stands becomes very poor. (12)
 
 
 

An estimated 373,000 miles of authorized roads and more then 60,000 miles of "ghost roads"-- unauthorized and unplanned roads that somehow just appear-- cut through the U.S. National Forests. These networks of roads are eight times that of the Interstate Highway System. These roads are primarily used to provide access for logging companies. In addition, these roads have also been built and maintained at the expense of the American taxpayer, not to mention the great expense to the natural environment. Along with the obvious destruction that can result from logging forest areas, the roads themselves have an irreversible impact on the landscape:

fragmenting wildlife   displacing animals

soil erosion

pouring sediment into streams and rivers

forever altering the character of the land

 

1. Clearcutting and the affects it

has on the environment
2. Alternatives to Clearcutting
3. Destruction from logging roads
4. What you can do to conserve land

1. Berg, Linda R., George B. Johnson, and Peter H. Raven. 1998. Environment 2^nd ed. Saunders College Publishing, Philadelphia PA.
2. CEO Programmers. (1997). Environmental Protection of Forests. http://www.ceo.org/infopapers/environ/forestry.html (1999 September 2).
3. Krasemann, Stephen J. 1992. The Nature Conservancy: Preserving Eden. New York, H.N. Abrams.
4. Land Trust Alliance. 1993. Starting a Land Trust: a Guide to Forming a Land Conservation Organization. Arlington, VA., Land Trust Alliance.
5. McNeely, Jeffrey A., editor. 1995. Expanding Partnerships in Conservation. International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Washington, D.C., Island Press.
6. Mohr, Bert. (1999, June 8). Wildlife in Abundance. http://openspaces.colville.com/wildlife.html (1999 September 2).
7. Morales, Leslie Anderson. 1991. Using Private Land Trusts and Conservation Easements to Protect the Environment: A Bibliography. Monticello, IL., Vance Bibliographies.
8. National Wildlife Federation. (1997). Land Stewardship. <http://www.nwf.org/lands/ (1999 September 2).
9. Three Rivers Land Conservancy. (1999). Land Protection. http://www.trlc.org (1999 September 2).
10. The Wilderness Society. (1999). Stand By Your Lands. http://www.wilderness.org/index.shtml (1999 September 2).
11. The Natural Resource Defense Council. (1999). Homepage. http://www.nrdc.org (1999 September 2).
12. The Silvicultural System. (1999). Introduction to Silvicultural System. http://www.for.gov.bc.ca/HIP/PUBS/SSIntroworkbook/intro.htm (1999 September 2).