There are four parts to a fat: a molecule of glycerol and three molecules of fatty acids (see diagram below). Each fatty acid consists of a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxyl group at one end.  In almost all cases, the number of carbon atoms found in the fatty acid will be an even number ranging from 4 to 24. This is due to the fact that fatty acids come from fragments containing two carbon atoms which have been synthesized.

    When broken down and looked at more closely, fats are otherwise referred to as   "good" fats and "bad fats.  Let's look more closely at these two types of fats and their composition. The diagram below illustrates the chemical make up of both saturated "good" fats and unsaturated "bad" fats. You can see that the unsaturated fatty acid chain has a double bond, whereas the saturated one does not. Reference to the number of hydrogens attached to the fatty acids is what makes the fat either saturated, mono-unsaturated, or poly-unsaturated. Hydrocarbon chains in saturated fats are closely packed together and come primarily from animal sources. On the other hand, unsaturated fats have a double bond with some carbon atoms in the hydrocarbon tail, which cause the molecule to become bended. Because there is a kink in the chain the carbon and hydrogen atoms are not able to pack together as closely, which makes the fat worse for your body. So, the more hydrogen atoms, the healthier the fat is for you.

Good Fats

    As you now know, unsaturated fats are "good" fats, but within this category there are two types monounsaturated fats and polyunsaturated fats. Unsaturated fats are derived primarily from plant sources. Some examples are vegetable oils, nuts, and seeds.  Once derived from the plant, it is then processed into the oil.  We will look at methods of processing oils in a few minutes. First lets take a look at these two types of fats.

    Monounsaturated fats are found in canola, peanut, and olive oils. Because monounsaturated fats only have one double bond, they are not saturated with hydrogen and, therefore, help lower cholesterol more so than saturated fats. However, monounsaturated fats still contain a great deal of fat and therefore should be limited.

    Polyunsaturated fats, on the other hand, can be both good and bad for the body. They are found in high concentrations in sunflower, corn, and soybean oils. Just like monounsaturated fats, they should be used in place of saturated fats to lower cholesterol levels.

    Mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids are made when hydrogens are bonded to the carbon atoms on the same side of the carbon atom. This form is otherwise referred to as the cis form.  We will know look at saturated fats and the trans fat form in comparing the two .

  Bad Fats

    Trans fats are a type of saturated fat that is bad for our health.  Trans fats are produced when oils harden, primarily through the hydrogenation process. Some examples of food that are high in trans fats include margarines, snack foods, commercially prepared baked goods, processed foods, and fried foods. In trans fats, hydrogen atoms are on opposite sides of the carbon chain. By being on opposite ends the fatty acid is straighter which is similar to the straight chain of saturated fatty acids. The diagram to the right illustrates the difference between the trans fats form and the cis form.

    Many times trans fats are not listed on the food label and therefore it is difficult to know if you are consuming these fats. Starting in 1999, nutrition facts labels are now required to list the amount of trans fatty acids in a food. The Food and Drug Administration now requires trans fats to be listed on all food labels, after studies conducted showed that consuming trans fatty acids leads to a higher risk of coronary heart disease. By easily identifying trans fats on labels, Americans can lead healthier lifestyles.

Overall, foods high in saturated fat come primarily from animal sources and include meat, dairy products, poultry skin, seafood, and egg yolks.

How can you steer clear of "bad" fats?

    Try to limit the bad fats and replace them with good fats. Be sure to check the ingredient list on food labels and steer clear of hydrogenated oils. The higher the hydrogenated oils are on the label the more there are and the worse the food is for your health. The overall goal is that we, as a society need to be more concerned with the types of fat we eat.  With a good understanding of the different types of fats, how our body absorbs them, and by replacing the "bad" fat with the "good" fat we can adapt to lead healthier lifestyles

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 Margarine vs. Butter Controversy:

       Margarine was introduced in the U.S.  as a fat alternative to butter in 1873 and has been a part of our daily lives ever since (22). The idea has been tossed around if margarine really is better for our health than butter. While studies have proved this true,  it was also discovered through extensive research that some forms of margarine, particularly hard stick margarine, are actually worse for the heart than butter. It was found that particularly hard stick margarine contains large amounts of trans fats, which are bad for our health. While the controversy is ongoing between people these days, one thing remains true; while butter contains less saturated fat than margarine, it also contains trans fat. When the two fats are combined butter is far worse for our health than margarine. 

The chart below, taken from a web food news magazine Medicinal Food News, illustrates the differences in the amount of fats in butter, stick margarine, and tub margarine. As you can see, while butter contains less total fat than stick margarine and tub margarine, the amount of saturated fat found in butter is almost three times the amount in margarine. Combining the saturated fat and the trans fat gives us an idea of the best: tub margarine and the worst: butter, for our health.

        In terms of calories, "nutrition professionals generally recommend that our diets contain no more than 30 percent of calories from fat. The current federal dietary guidelines also adopt this standard. In a 2000-calorie diet, 30 percent of calories from fat equates to almost 600 calories or 66 grams of fat per day" (37).

Your best option when it comes to butter and margarine is to use liquid vegetable oils or a soft tub margarine that is labeled trans fat free or non-hydrogenated. Because cholesterol and saturated fat are bad for our bodies and butter contains both of these, our risk for heart disease increases.  Meanwhile margarine is assumed to be good for you because it is made from unsaturated vegetable oils. Refer to the table below, information was taken from Webexibits and Nutrition.org, to get a sense of where butter and margarine come from and how they are made.

Did you know:

 "A whole stick of butter has almost as much fat and cholesterol and double the amount of saturated fat as THREE popular quarter-pound burgers with cheese? This is something to keep in mind when your recipe calls for a whole stick of butter"  (22). To learn more margarine and butter and recent studies that have been conducted, check out the National Association of Margarine Manufactures homepage.

The affect fats have on our health: cholesterol

        The American Heart Association defines cholesterol as " a waxy substance made by the liver and also supplied in the diet through animal products such as meats, poultry, fish and dairy products. Cholesterol is needed (in the body) to insulate nerves, make cell membranes and produce certain hormones." So what exactly does this mean for us? Well, one in five Americans have cholesterol levels that are considered to be high, which is bad. This means that there is a build up of cholesterol deposits, otherwise known as plaque, on the inside of our arteries which narrow them and cause our blood flow to be slowed down and in some cases even blocked. In turn, plaque can rupture and lead to blood clots which in turn may lead to heart attacks, stroke, or sudden death. This process is otherwise referred to as atherosclerosis. Therefore it is important to understand cholesterol, how it affects the body, and why we need it.

There are two main types of cholesterol that carry lipoproteins these are:

         The higher your LDL and the lower your HDL, the greater you are at risk for atherosclerosis and heart disease.

*Total body cholesterol falls into three main categories*

The National Cholesterol Education Program recommends the following target levels:

•   Total cholesterol less than 200 milligrams per deciliter (mg/dL)

•    HDL cholesterol levels greater than 40 mg/dL

•    LDL cholesterol levels less than 100 mg/dL

To avoid high cholesterol, it is important to know how both bad fats and good fats affect your cholesterol. Many believe that it's the total amount of fat that they consume that affects their cholesterol when in fact it's the type of fat that they consume. Bad fats increase the risk for certain diseases, while the good fats lower the risk for disease. It is recommended that first you try to alter your lifestyle to reduce your cholesterol, however if that is not possible there are drugs that are prescribed to reduce cholesterol. In addition to helping lower your cholesterol level, cholesterol lowering drugs help prevent you from risk of various medical problems such as heart attacks and strokes. Cholesterol reducing drugs are broken down into five main categories statins, bile acid resins, nicotinic acid, fibrates, and ezetimibe.

Cholesterol Reducing Drugs

Statins: 

    Statins lower LDL-cholesterol more than any other drug because they "inhibit an enzyme, HMG- CoA reductase, that controls the rate of cholesterol production in the body" (39). These large reductions of cholesterol result in the reduction of heart attacks and heart disease. In the United States, today, there are five types of statin drugs on the market: lovastatin, simvastatin, pravastatin, fluvastatin, and atorvastatin. These types of drugs lower cholesterol by slowing down the production of cholesterol and increasing the liver's ability to remove the LDL-cholesterol already found in our blood. While these medications take 4 to 6 weeks to take full effect, serious side effects are rare. "Studies using statins have reported 20 to 60 percent lower LDL-cholesterol levels in patients on these drugs. Statins also reduce elevated triglyceride levels and produce a modest increase in HDL-cholesterol" (39).

Bile acid resins:

    Bile acid resins are sometimes prescribed with a statin to increase cholesterol reduction. When these drugs are combined their effects are added together to lower LDL-cholesterol by more than 40 percent. The major effect of bile acid resins is to lower LDL-cholesterol by about 10 to 20 percent. These drugs are found in tablet or powder forms and are not absorbed by the body. Due to this, tablets should be taken with lots of fluid to avoid symptoms relating to gas, bloating and nausea (39).

Nicotinic Acid:

    The purpose of nicotinic acid is to lower total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol but inturn raise levels of HDL cholesterol. Immediate release, timed release, and extended release are the three types of nicotinic acid. While these drugs are available over the counter, you should be sure to closely consult your physician before taking them.  "Nicotinic acid reduces LDL-cholesterol levels by 10 to 20 percent, reduces triglycerides by 20 to 50 percent, and raises HDL-cholesterol by 15 to 35 percent" (38).

Fibrates:

    Here is the United States, Gemfibrozil is the most common and effective fibrate drug. Gemfibrozil is not effective in lowering LDL cholesterol, but more or less used to lower triglycerides or to raise HDL cholesterol.  Generally, reductions in triglycerides range from 20 to 50 percent with increases in HDL-cholesterol being 10 to 15 percent (39).

Ezetimibe:

    This drug has been approved for use in Germany and in the United States, however it is not available in the UK.  Ezetimibe works by preventing cholesterol from being reabsorbed from the bowel, which in turn reduces cholesterol levels. It has been noted that when taken in conjunction with a statin, there is a significant reduction in LDL cholesterol (39).

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Fat Substitutes: Olestra/Olean

     Food and Drug Administration 

What is Olestra?

Originally known as sucrose polyesters, olestra is a fat substitute that is used in spicy snacks such as potato chips, corn chips, cheese puffs, and crackers. It was believed that substitution of olestra for natural fats would reduce calorie intake, thus reducing risk factors for obesity, coronary heart disease, diabetes, and some types of cancer.

Where did it come from?

Through studying fat digestion, in the late 1960's, Fred Mattson and Bob Volpenhein of Procter & Gamble discovered olestra. Studies went on for more than 30 years to prove whether or not olestra was good for the body.

Research

According to Proctor and Gamble over 150,000 pages and 150 studies were conducted on olestra. For 30 years studies were conducted, however no money was granted by Congress for independent testing. Therefore all the testing that was conducted was done solely by Proctor and Gamble themselves. Studies associated with the Federal Drug and Food Administration reported that research was not tested long enough and that the amount of olestra animals were given was far less than what a human would actually consume. Although in January 1996 the FDA approved olestra as a fat substitute, but required a warning label be placed on the product.  This warning label was required to state that olestra has laxative effects and interferes with the absorption of nutrients.

How is Olestra made?

Olestra is made from an ordinary fat (no specific fat was mentioned when I was researching this) although vegetable oils were mentioned as undergoing a process (again not mentioned) that reduces our calorie intake (30).

Benefits of Olestra:

• Provides Americans with the opportunity to reduce their fat intake by replacing their fats with these fat substitutes.

• Contributes no fat or calories to our diet, because olestra is not absorbed

Problems with Olestra

• According to the Commissioner of Food and Drugs David A. Kessler, M.D.,   "olestra may cause abdominal cramping and loose stools in some individuals, and inhibits the body's absorption of certain fat-soluble vitamins and nutrients." Because of this the FDA required Proctor and Gamble and other manufactures to label products that contained olestra and the FDA required them to add essential vitamins to olestra to protect public health (30).
  Read more about the problems associated with olestra.

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Vegetable Oils

Corn Oil

Origin and Composition:

Corn oil dates back to the 19th century and is a "by-product" of the corn milling industry. Corn is ground either wet or dry and then pressed to obtain the oil. Corn oil is an edible oil obtained from the seeds of corn. The oil is odorless and has very little taste (4).

Uses:

Corn oil is used primarily for cooking purposes; frying foods. Corn oil is also used in margarines and shortenings.

Why Corn oil is good for you:

Corn oil contains high levels of polyunsaturated fat instead of purely saturated fats. Studies show that there are no vegetable oils that are more effective in lowering cholesterol levels than corn oil (4).

Cautions:

Corn oil, when exposed to heat, oxygen, and light becomes rancid. Therefore, methods of processing affect the quality of the oil, its shelf life, as well as the nutritional content.

Olive Oil

Origin and Composition: Olive oil is one of the oldest culinary oils. There are many different myths that are associated with olive oil. However, the earliest records of olive cultivation date back to the Egyptians in 3100 B.C. The Egyptians used olive oil to anoint bodies as a cleanser, in religious accoutrement, and as a lamp oil. In the olden days olives were washed, steamed, and then cut by big stone wheels. Today technology makes our lives easier by using hydraulic machinery to crush the olives. Olive oil is obtained from a fruit pulp, rather than a seed. The seeds are removed from the fruit and the pulp is then pressed  to ensure there is not a build up of heat. The liquid that remains is separated into water and oil. The result is known as "extra virgin" oil.

Uses:

Olive oil is used primarily in gourmet cooking

Why its good for you:

Cooking with olive oil is beneficiary to your health because of its fatty acid composition, which helps control cholesterol levels. "It is also believed that  antioxidant substances such as vitamins E, K and polyphenols which are found in olive oil, delay aging and prevent carcinogenesis, liver disorders and inflammations.  It is very well tolerated by the stomach and is believed to lower the incidence of gallstone formation as well as promoting bone mineralization, and is therefore excellent for those who have bone calcification problems" (31).

Canola Oil

Origin and Composition:

Canola oil comes from canola seed and was developed using traditional plant breeding methods to remove undesirable qualities in rapeseed. This oilseed crop is primarily grown in regions of Western Canada. The canola plant produces flowers that produce pods and within the pods are seeds that are then crushed to obtain canola oil. Although, only a portion of the seed contains oil the remainder is fed to livestock after being processed into canola meal for livestock.

Uses:

The chart below was taken from the Canola Information Site and provides an illustration of the breakdown of canola oil and the various uses that canola oil is used for from edible to inedible uses as well as meal processing. 

Why its good for you:

Canola oil is high in monounsaturated fat, has a moderate level of polyunsaturated fat, and has the lowest amount of saturated fat in it.

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Methods of Processing:

    1. Extraction: A method of extracting oil on the basis of crushing the seeds and heating them to get the oil.

                  Steps:

1. Seeds are crushed and heated to 230 degrees

2. Oil is then squeezed out (during this the oils are exposed to damaging light and oxygen)

3. The solvent is then boiled off to extract the last 10% of the oil

                    Problems with Extraction:

• By processing the oils at high temperatures the carbon bonds become weak and break apart, creating dangerous free radicals which are suspected of causing cancer and brain damage.

                    Safest way of Extraction:

•  Extra virgin olive oil is produced by crushing olives between stone or steel rollers. This process is a gentle one that preserves the integrity of the fatty acids and the numerous natural preservatives in olive oil.

    2. Hydrogenation: This method turns liquids into fats at room temperature (ex. margarine and shortening).

                    Steps:

1.  Begins with the cheapest oils ( soy, corn,. cottonseed, or canola) and mix with tiny metal particles (usually nickel oxide).

2. Soap-like emulsifiers and starch are squeezed into the mixture to give it a better consistency.

3. Color is removed with bleach and dyes and strong flavors are added.

4. Finally the mixture is compressed and packaged in blocks or tubs.

                    Problems with Hydrogenation:

• Partially hydrogenated margarines and shortenings are bad for our health due to the chemical changes that take place during this process. Because the oil is subject to high temperatures, the hydrogen atoms on the fatty acid chain bend slightly.

• Consumption of hydrogenated fats are associated with cancer, atherosclerosis, obesity, immune system dysfunction, diabetes, low-birth weight, birth defects, and problems with bones and tendons.

Taken from the Economic Bontany (3rd edition) Plants in our world textbook.

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Animal Oils

• Fish Oil

Origin and Composition:

Fish oil contains Omega 3 fatty acids, which are a type of poly-unsaturated fat that the body needs, but does not make.  Omega 3 fatty acids contain three or more double bonds in each fatty acid. Due to this, there are two less hydrogen atoms for each double bond (refer to the diagram on the right). These Omega 3 fatty acids are obtained from  fruits, grains, and vegetable oils (40).
 

Use of Oil:

Fish oils are used primarily for medical purposes. Fish oil is derived mainly from cold water fish such as salmon, cod, tuna, mackerel and are used in helping to prevent certain types of cancers.

Affect on our health:

Fish oil contains Omega-3 fatty acids which are essential oils that the body needs in order to carry on its daily functions. However, there are limited ways to obtain Omega-3 fatty acids. Therefore, fish oil is being used as a dietary supplement. Omega-3 fatty acids contribute to helping our brain, heart, immune system, the movement of our joints, as well as cholesterol levels.

• Cod Liver Oil

Origin and Composition:

Cod liver was first used in countries such as Scotland, Iceland, Norway, and Greenland to protect the against cold temperatures. It was also believed that eating cod liver oil relieved aching muscles and stiff joints. In order to obtain cod liver oil, the oil is pressed from livers of cod fish.

Use of oil:

Cod liver oil is used primarily as a fish oil supplement because it contains omega 3 fatty acids which are essential to our bodies. In addition to fish oil supplements, cod liver oil is also used as an ingredient in animal feeds.

Affect on our health:

Contains Vitamin A & D ; It is recommended, however, that cod liver oil should only be taken as a substitute, not in addition, because each teaspoon contains 40 calories.

• Sperm Oil

Origin and Composition:

In 1712, Christopher Hussey discovered the sperm whale. When he killed the whale he discovered in its head or "case" there was a reservoir of oil, which leads us into our discussion of sperm oil. Sperm oil is a liquid wax, its composition is clear and it is found in a variety of colors. However sperm oil chemically is not a true oil. Rather, it is secured from the blubber and from a huge cavity in the whale's head (this cavity helps the whale keep part of his head above water to breathe).

Use of oil:

Sperm oil is an excellent lubricant for watches and used as a dressing for leather, to protect plants from insects, tempering steel, and in making soap.

Societal Issue: Whaling

 Whaling dates back to Native American Indians hunting whales in the early 17th century with canoes. However, it wasn't until 50 years later that whaling became more popular primarily in Massachusetts. Whales were caught and killed in the early days by crews of six that harpooned the whale and brought the carcass back to shore. There the whale blubber was boiled and converted into crude oil.  The economy quickly began to rely on whaling. They began to sell the crude oil to illuminate homes. In 1690 the colony of Nantucket, Massachusetts realized the economic benefits of trading whale oil and thus took advantage of the opportunity.  From then on, whaling became a way of life.

It wasn't until 1971 the United States enacted the Marine Mammal Protection Act which banned whaling and also banned imports of whale products. And then in 1976 whales were added to the list of endangered species list.

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Waxes

How waxes and oils differ:

While oils are liquid at room temperature and must undergo a process to become a solid, waxes are solid at room temperature. Oils are made up of fatty acids and glycerol, whereas waxes are made of long chains of alcohols and fatty acids. Waxes are normally less greasy than fats and are soluble in alcohol but not in water. Not all plants produce oil, but some plants need to produce essential oil to function properly.

Importance of wax:

Fatty acids react with alcohol to form esters, such as waxes. These waxes are of primary importance to plants and fruits by providing a protective layer. The outer covering is made of hydroxy fatty acid polymers called cutin. Waxes are also found in animas such as the honey bee.  Click here to read more about this protective layer that wax provides.

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Types of Waxes

1. Jojoba:

Origin and Composition

Jojoba is a liquid wax that is produced from seeds of the jojoba tree which is cultivated in Mexico, Arizona, and California Jojoba's chemistry is similar to and contains almost all of the same properties of sperm whale oil. It is a colorless and flavorless oil/wax that does not easily deteriorate because it is composed of wax esters.

Uses:

 Jojoba oil is effective in penetrating the outer layers of human skin which has led it to be used in the cosmetic industry in products such as moisturizers as it is ideal for all skin types.  Jojoba is also used for hair care in shampoos.

2.  Carnauba:

Origin and Composition:

Carnauba wax is obtained from the processing of powder exuded from the leaves of a palm tree named Carnauba that is grown in Brazil (see picture to the right). To protect itself during periods of drought the Carnauba covers its leaves with a thick layer of wax consisting basically of esters, alcohols, and fatty acids. Once collected, the leaves are dried out and beaten for the wax

 Uses:

After being refined Carnauba wax is used in various industries all over the world particularly in polishing wax (cars, shoes, floors), in the cosmetic industry (lipstick, enamels), and in the food industry (chocolate, fruit, and bubble gum) due to its high melting point.

3. Candelilla

Origin and Composition:

Candelilla is a natural vegetable wax from northwestern Mexico, that is produced by a Mexican plant called Euphorbia antisyphilitica. This type of wax is obtained from the stems of the plant. After being gathered, the stems are boiled in water. The wax that melts and floats to the surface is scooped off and hardens. Candelilla is a light brown to light yellow wax that is brittle, however it is softer than carnauba wax.

Uses:

Candelilla is more commonly used in chewing gum. The wax gives the gum its chew and the oil retention properties allow the gum to keep its' flavor. Because candelilla is a good molding wax, it is used in other applications such as electronics, lubricants, adhesives, paints, and dyes.

4. Beeswax:

Origin and Composition:

Beeswax dates back to ancient times when it was supposedly found in the tombs of Egyptian kings. It was believed that the bees gathered their wax from the plants, when it fact it was actually pollen that they were gathering. Beeswax is secreted by glands on the abdomen of the bee, however the color of the wax is dependent on the flowers that the bee gathers. Bees use their wax to form the hive, but the chemical composition of beeswax varies depending upon the species of the bee. Beeswax, when secreted is odorless, however after being stored within the honeycomb it tends to smell sweet.

Uses:

In the past beeswax has been used in place of money as well as making statues because it molds well and is then able to be covered with clay and hardened. Beeswax is used in medicine, soap and candle making, cosmetics, the pharmaceutical industry, cooking, crayons, and various other type of industries. Click here to find out more uses for beeswax and for recipes. 

Works Cited

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3. CNN Interactive. (1997, July 15).  Olestra snack chips draw more consumer complaints

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            New York.

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32. Soulshine Beeswax Candles. (2003, April 1). Beeswax History. <http://www.esoulshine.com/beeswaxhistory.htm> (2003, October 7).

         FDA Proposes New Rules for Trans Fatty Acids in Nutrition Labeling, Nutrient Content Claims, and Health Claims

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