Introduction
Around the world alcohol and the topics surrounding it remain controversial. For some the consumption of alcohol is a fact of everyday life, but others see it as a sign of physical weakness and a distraction from the pursuit of godliness. It is important to remember to keep an open mind when studying the cultural beliefs of others. It is through the exploration of other opinions that we refine and solidify our own. Even within the United States views on alcohol consumption vary.
Beyond the consumption, the manufacture of alcohol and alcohol related products make a significant contribution to the economy. For example, alcohol is the United States’ most heavily taxed consumer product. The taxes and fees imposed on alcohol by federal, state, and local governments total more than $18 million per year in tax revenue in the sale of distilled spirits alone (10). The number of jobs provided by industries related to alcohol makes it an important source of income for the nations that produce it. In the United Kingdom, Scotch whiskey is the fifth major export and continues to provide work and tax revenues for citizens (10).
This web-site examines how different types of alcohol are produced, the effects of alcohol on the body, how alcohol has impacted American history, and the various cultural views about alcohol use.
What is Alcohol?
The name alcohol comes from the Arabic word al-kuh meaning “a powder for painting the eyelids”; eventually the definition was expanded to include drinking alcohol as well. In 1810 the French chemist Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac was the first to outline the workings of the fermentation process and to describe the chemical nature of alcohol (15). For the purposes of this presentation when we refer to alcohol we mean ethanol. The chemical structure of ethanol is:
H
H3C-C-O-H
H
According to The Britannica Student Encyclopedia Online, “the manufacture of alcohol is based on the principle of replacing hydrogen atoms with hydroxyl groups. Until 1930 this process was carried out by simple fermentation of grains such as corn, wheat, rice, and barely” (7). With advances in technology, the distillation process, and fermentation techniques the production of alcohol has skyrocketed since the 1930s (after Prohibition).
Main Alcoholic Beverages
Wine
History
Throughout history wine has had many meanings. It has held significance in all the major religions (as we will see in more detail later) and its consumption was first noted by the ancient Egyptians around 2500 BC (8). Although the world’s most famous wine growing regions are in Western Europe, it is believed to have originated in the Middle East. Traders used alcohol as currency and it did not come into fashion in Europe until the Roman Empire. It was the Romans who spread the grapes used to make wine across their empire to the valleys of France, Italy, and Germany. The Romans were also the first to classify grapes and to experiment with the creation of heartier fruit to resist weather and disease (15).
Through processes started by the Romans and later perfected by various sects of monks the Vitis vinifera grape (the main species of grape used in making wine) has been cultivated into nearly 4,000 different varieties (8). The place of origin for the Vitis vinifera grape is believed to be around the Caspian Sea (15). It was not until 1769 that viticulture and the Vitis vinifera reached America with the Franciscan missionary Father Junipero Serra (15). Another grape variety (the Vitis Labrusca) is native to North America and has recently been added to some American red wines (15).
Wine Making
In order to produce wine, fermentation must take place. In the process of fermentation, “each sugar molecule is converted into two molecules of ethanol and two molecules of carbon dioxide” (15). As shown here:
C6H12O6 → 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
The longer the fruit is left on the vine, the higher the sugar content will be and thus the longer the duration of the fermentation process (8). First the grapes are crushed and pressed to release all the juice. The skins and seeds are then compacted and stored for later use (referred to as Must). Sulfur dioxide is added to “inhibit the growth of unwanted, naturally occurring yeasts, bacteria, and oxygen (15). Louis Pasteur found that yeast converted grape juice into wine through an anaerobic process but bacterial contamination sometimes caused the wine to turn to vinegar (15).
The wine maker then adds yeast fragments to the juice. The specific variety of yeast is often held very secret as it affects the final product. As the yeast ferments, the chemical change produces heat. Yeast grows best at around 77˚ F or 25˚ C, if the mixture is allowed to get too warm the yeast will die and fermentation will stop (8). Typically white wine takes 10 – 6 weeks to ferment, but red wine can take as few as 2 (15). The wine maker knows the wine is done when there are no ferment sugars left in the mixture. It is then strained to remove sediment and stored in oak barrels for aging. At this stage lactic acid may be added in order to trigger a second fermentation. A wine’s vintage is the year when 95% of the wine was made, this is used to differentiate wine growing seasons and the quality of the wine produced in that season (15).
Wine Classification
All wines start out using the process described above. In order to attain red or rosé, some of the skins and seeds (Must) are reintroduced when the wine is aged (8). White, red, and rosé are considered table wines and they constitute the majority of wines consumed. Typically, the alcohol content of table wines ranges from 7 to 15% (8).
Fortified wines have a much higher alcohol content (ranging from 14% to around 23%) because grape brandy is added to the wine before it is aged. Sherry is the most popular of the fortified wines, but Marsala and Vermouth also belong to this category (8).
Sparkling wine sparkles because more yeast is added when the wine is taken from the barrel and put into bottles. The fermentation and pressurization of the carbon dioxide is what causes Champagne (the best known sparkling wine) the bubble (15). According to the book Plants and Society, Dom Perignon (a Benedictine monk) was the first to study the effects of this second fermentation and perfected it (15). Champagne is named for the region in France where it is grown. Italy also produces a very popular sparkling wine called Asti Spumante (15).
Beer
History
Recent discoveries made in what was Mesopotamia revealed that beer was widely consumed as early as the fourth millennium BC (5). Records indicate that beer was brewed by the Sumerians, Egyptians, Hebrews, Incas, and the Chinese (15). Like early wines, it is believed that these beers were considerably sweeter than those of today, and were stored in clay jugs. Additives in ancient beer included egg whites and goat’s milk (for clarification) as well as seawater, gypsum, flower petals, and spices (to improve aroma and flavor) (5).
Beer Making
According to Plants and Society, “beer can be made from any starchy carbohydrate source, but barely is most commonly used” (15). The grain is soaked to allow it to germinate and is then roasted and crushed to make malt powder. The color of the finished beer is actually determined at this early stage. The higher the temperature at which the malt is roasted the darker the beer. Water is added as well as more grain starch and then the mixture is heated to start the fermentation process. It is the breakdown of the sugars in the added grain starch that allows the liquid to ferment (15).
Although barley is the chief grain used in the making of malt, the secondary grain starch varies. Beers that use barely for both processes are referred to as malt liquors, but in all actuality any cereal grain can be used to start fermentation. Beers made in the United States tend to use rice as the grain starch and thus maintain a distinct flavor and color (15). The liquid is strained and the sediment removed (now called wort).
Then hops are added and the new mixture is boiled. The scientific name for hops is humulus lupulus. They come from a vine that is part of the hemp family (cannabaceae) which is found in the North temperate regions of the world. Hops counteract the naturally bitter taste of the wort, attribute the head to the beer, and also have antibacterial properties that keep the beer from spoiling (15).
Lager vs. Ale
After the mixture is strained a second time, yeast is added. If the yeast rises to the top of the tank it is considered ale, however; if the yeast settles at the bottom it is a lager. Most beers made in the United States are lagers (15). The beer is stored in these tanks for up to three weeks (again until all of the fermentable sugars are gone) and then more yeast is added to cause a second fermentation and boost the level of carbon di
oxide in the beer. Most beers have an alcohol content of around 4-6% (15). Many brew masters agree that the specific yeasts, hops, and grains used combine to determine the quality of the finished product.
Although most Americans consider drinking beer to be an accepted part of our culture, we tend to drink far less of it than other beer producing nations. A recent study done by Maritz Marketing Research concluded that 51% of adult Americans had consumed a beer within the last month. However 66% of Germans could claim the same (14). In German society beer drinking is considered the norm. So much so in fact that 85 % of male German respondents had had a drink in the last 30 days. Americans fall somewhere in the middle of the pack according to Maritz, with the French coming in last with only 38% of their population partaking in beer in the last month (14).
Distilled Beverages
Distillation
During distillation a fermented alcohol is heated to a high temperature to evaporate excess water. Because alcohol has a lower boiling point it quickly separates and rises (in the form of steam) through a series of coils which cool it rapidly to condense it again (15). Common distilled beverages include whiskey, rum, vodka, tequila, and gin.
Although they are considerably more potent than fermented alcohol, distilled spirits still do not contain 100% pure alcohol. Drinking
pure alcohol can be dangerous because just a few ounces can raise your blood alcohol to fatal levels (9). Distilled spirits are classified according to proof (equal to twice the alcohol percentage). On average these spirits contain between 40-50% alcohol and range from 80-100 proof (15). The differences among distilled spirits come from their various fermented bases and additives. Because of the similarities in their production, I will only briefly touch on the major distilled beverages.
Vodka
Vodka originated, as did most forms of alcohol, in Arabia and was introduced to Russia no later than the 13th century (earliest recorded appearance was 1398). It was referred to as “the water of life or Aqua Vitae” by its makers who claimed it had medicinal purposes. By the 15th century it was sold around the world as medicine (24).
It is produced by the distillation of a grain or potato beer. Vodka is colorless and easily takes on the flavor of whatever it is mixed with (15). In Russia and other Eastern European nations, it has been the major alcoholic beverage for centuries. In the past, it has been mixed with everything from spices and fragrant grasses to St. John’s Wort and cinnamon (24). Because of its high alcohol content vodka will not freeze, but should be consumed with caution.
It came to popularity as a drink for the Russian army around the time of Tsars Ivan III and IV. As vodka became more common among the peasantry, public drunkenness became more prevalent. In fact Tsar Peter I was famous for drinking binges that lasted days. In Russian society it was considered rude to refuse a drink at anytime it is offered, even if it was only eight o’clock in the morning (24).
Rum
Rum is produced by the double distillation of a molasses, water, and yeast mixture that is then aged in oak casks. It is divided into two categories (light and dark). Dark rum comes from Jamaica & Guyana. It gets its dark color from an extra dose of molasses and caramel that is added after the second distillation, not from the casks itself. Generally speaking dark rums are aged longer than light rums (on average from 3-7 years) and have a proof level around 150 (10).
Light rum is produced in the Virgin Islands, Haiti, and Martinique. It is aged anywhere from 1-3 years and tends to be amber in color. It is produced with the fermented juices of the sugarcane plant rather than molasses (10).
Tequila
According to CocktailTimes.com, “tequila was initially produced as
a ritual beverage by religious authorities long before the 16th century”. Around this time the Mexicans introduced it to Spanish explorers. This popular beverage is named for the Mexican town of Tequila where Jose Cuervo became the first to commercialize its production around the 17th century (12).
Teq
uila is made with the Blue Agave plant, is required by Mexican law to make up at least 51% of the original mixture. Tequilero (tequila distillers) usually mix it with sugarcane extracts to make blended tequila. Tequilas containing 100% Blue Agave must be made completely in Mexico, but blended tequilas can be produced elsewhere. Because tequila needs no aging it can be shipped immediately after it is produced allowing for instant revenue for the Mexican government. Gold tequila (the highest grade) is aged for up to 3 years in oak casks (12).
The Impact of Alcohol on
American History
Alcohol and Slavery
Sugarcane is a main ingredient in several varieties of alcohol (includin
g rum and tequila) but it grows mainly in warm climates. According to rhumdemartinique.com, “syrup became a major form of international currency in 1767” (3). During the 1800s the demand for sugar rose dramatically and the need for labor to process the sugarcane also increased. In order to supply this need slaves were brought from Africa to do the brunt of the physically demanding work. In return for providing slaves, refiners would trade rum and molasses.
More than fifty percent of the farmland in Martinique was dedicated to the cultivation of sugarcane by 1870 (3). A sudden increase in the number of sugar refineries caused a drop in the price of sugar, forcing the sale of many slaves to cotton and tobacco producers in the southern United States (10).
The Whiskey Rebellion
In 1794 citizens in western Pennsylvania and along the Ohio Valley (mostly of Scots-Irish ancestral origin) openly protested taxes that were levied against the whiskey they produced. For many, the distillation of whiskey was the prime source of income for their families and they believed the tax was an unfair imposition of the government on their pursuit of prosperity (16). The settlers responded by refusing to pay the tax, attacking tax collectors, and holding demonstrations at jail sites were those arrested were held. The rebellion gained national attention and tested the authority of the new American government (16).
Prohibition
Prohibition began with the Women’s Christian Temperance union which protested the sale of alcohol to minors and later extended their cause to everyone. As the movement grew they pushed their Congressmen to “support regulations against alcohol production” (17). According to Mechelle Martz, a contributing writer for the cocktailtimes.com, many U.S. industries started to hire only “sober” employees and thus put economic pressure on communities to become dry (make it illegal to consume, produce, or sell alcoholic beverages).
In 1920 the 18th Amendment to the Constitution was passed making it illegal to “manufacture, sell, transport, import, or export any intoxicating liquors for beverage purposes”. Later the Volstead Act was passed to enforce the Amendment. It defined intoxicating liquors as “alcohol, whiskey, gin, brandy, rum, beer, wine, ale, port, or any spirituous, vinous, malt, or fermented liquor, liquid or compound sold under any name that contained ½ of 1% or more of alcohol by volume and was fit for beverage purpose” (17).
Consequently, a subculture grew up around the bootlegging and illegal consumption of alcohol. Across America illegal-bootlegging rings started, but none was as famous as
the one run in Chicago by Al Capone. Around 1923 Capone took over the speakeasies and brothels of his mentor John Torrio. He controlled all illegal alcohol flow, gambling, prostitution, and the white slave trade around Chicago at the time. Although he claimed to be distributing high quality alcohol much of it was mixed with other chemicals. Many patrons of Capone’s nightclubs suffered from side effects including “blindness, insanity, and even death”. How Capone actually smuggled the alcohol into his clubs remains a mystery, but it is believed that he stored it in automobile gas tanks and drove it into town (18).
Policy analysts have studied the 18th Amendment extensively. The major criticism is that alcohol consumption actually increased during the Prohibition era. It was passed at a time when the level of alcohol consumption was down anyway. By outlawing the practice, the government unwittingly brought drinking back into fashion. In all probability the consumption levels would have risen above the national high set ten years before the Amendment was passed if it had not been repealed in 1933 (23).
Alcohol and Organized Religion
Christianity
Accord
ing to ALOCWEB.com, wine has been a symbol of the Christian covenant with God since Old Testament times. Many believe that because Jesus chose the symbol of wine to represent his blood at the Last Supper, the consumption of alcohol was permissible. However there are several verses in the New Testament that warn against becoming drunk and loosing control of one’s faculties due to intoxication. Some Christian denominations have interpreted these verses to mean that any consumption of alcohol is ungodly (for example the Adventists, members of the Church of Latter Day Saints, & Mormons) (1).
Buddhism
Buddhism generally discourages the consumption of alcohol on the principle that it distracts from developing understanding and inner tranquillity. According to Sanja Blackburn, “Buddhism teaches that through the practice of meditati
on, wisdom, and morality every individual has the innate ability to experience true happiness”.
Because Buddhism is an extremely involved discipline, few people can maintain an existence that is entirely devoted to the pursuit of inner peace. Many follow the “Middle Way” philosophy, which requires moderation in everything that a person does. Using this rational many Buddhists have justified the moderate consumption of alcohol (6).
Judaism
Under
the old Jewish Laws outlined in the Old Testament wine is consecrated as a religious symbol of joy and prosperity. Wine is an integral part of several Jewish holy days including the Kiddush ceremonies, Sabbath festivals, Passover, wedding ceremonies, circumcision ceremonies, and “it is tradition to drink enough to be intoxicated for the Feast of Purim”(2). As a bonus, this moderate periodic consumption is said to prevent Jews from overindulging and abusing alcohol.
Although it would seem that Judaism is in favor of using alcohol, several Old Testament passages caution Jews against drunkenness. In particular the stories of Noah appearing naked in front of his family and Lot committing incest are powerful warnings against intoxication (2).
Islam
There is a controversy as to the Koran’s teachings about alcohol. In Mohammad’s early teachings he says his followers were given “the fruit of the palm (date wine was a favorite drink in the Middle East) and the vine from which you derive intoxicants and wholesome food” (19). It would seem that from this interpretation that alcohol were openly consumed, but today’s Muslims are strongly for abstaining.
Such behavior is often lumped together with gambling, a practice that is explicitly and without question prohibited, thus elevating the consumption of any alcohol to a major affront against Allah. As with the other religions mentioned above, the Koran condemns drunkenness and allowing alcohol to lead to violence. The last passage about alcohol in the Koran tells believers that “wine and games of chance, idols and divining arrows are abominations devised by Satan”, a pretty clear indication that issues surrounding alcohol are not taken lightly in the Muslim world (19).
Furthermore, the behavior that accompanies drunkenness is thought to be shameful so families of alcohol abusers often keep it secret so as not to bring the family embarrassment. Many living in Islamic countries have criticized countries of the West stating that alcohol leads to the deterioration of families and abuse. They feel that alcohol should be forbidden and only leads to more cavorting with Satan (11).
Alcohol and Your Health
Absorption
When you consume alcohol it affects every major system in the body. According to howstuffworks.com, “20 percent of the alcohol is absorbed in the stomach and about 80 percent is absorbed into the small intestine” (9). Th
e speed at which the drinker feels the effect varies depending on the concentration of the alcohol, the amount of food in the stomach, and gender.
While it is obvious that drinks containing higher percentages of alcohol will have an increased impact, most people are unaware of the dangers of carbonation. Drinks that are carbonated, such as those mixed with soda, tend to be absorbed quicker (9). Their taste can also be detrimental because people forget they are drinking alcohol and may consume more. This is also a danger with mixed drinks containing fruit juices.
Food slows down the absorption of alcohol by soaking it up and forcing the stomach to digest the alcohol as it does the food. Although this slows absorption, it does not mean that large quantities of alcohol will not make you drunk if you have eaten recently. The effects will just take longer to kick in. It is recommended to have something in your stomach when you drink to prevent stomach irritation.
In American society we have tried to eliminate the social inequalities between men and women. However, no amount of social evolution will change the fact that men and women are biologically different. Because men tend to have a higher percentage of lean muscle mass, it takes longer for men to feel the effects of alcohol. Muscle tissue has more water in it than fat tissue and this dilutes the amount of alcohol being directly absorbed into the body. It would take a man longer to become intoxicated than a woman of the same height, weight, and build that had consumed the same amount of alcohol (9). Women naturally have more fat and thus will become intoxicated quicker. The gender differences also extend to the impacts alcohol has on health as we will see later.
Breakdown
After the alcohol is absorbed into the bloodstream, it is broken down by a process called oxidation in which the liver enzyme (dehydrogenase) strips the electrons from the ethanol to form acetaldehyde. Another enzyme (aldehyde dehydrogenase) converts the acetaldehyde to acetic acid.
The structure of acetic acid looks like this:
O
||
H3C-C-O-H
· In this process two protons and two electrons are also produced. The acetic acid can then be used to form fatty acids or can be broken down into carbon dioxide and water (9).
Alcohol and the Brain
In the brain, messages are sent between nerve cells to alert the body’s systems of the stimuli acting on the body at a given time. Alcohol enhances the effects of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA. This makes a person sluggish and contributes to slurred speech, stumbling, and other behaviors we would associate with being drunk (9).
The cerebral cortex processes sensory information and is responsible for thought processing and consciousness. After alcohol consumption the depression of inhibitory transmitters slows the cortex’s functioning and lowers a person’s inhibitions. Under the influence a person may become more talkative, have trouble seeing and smelling, and the ability to think clearly is impaired (9).
The limbic system controls emotional responses. After a few drinks a person may experience erratic emotional states. This can lead to numerous social consequences. Thus the chances of increased feelings of aggression and affection often accompany intoxication. After large quantities of alcohol, the limbic system that contributes heavily to a person’s feeling of withdrawal and the emotional responses accompanying it (9).
The Cerebellum coordinates muscle functioning and the fine movements that groups of muscles perform (9). When a person is intoxicated they often can not move their limbs with the precision they normally would. Many of you may have seen an officer performing a field sobriety test in which a driver is asked to touch his/her finger to their nose. A person under the influence will be unable to control the muscles to perform this action. In addition the person's impaired coordination and sight may contribute to their inability to pass the sobriety test.
Effects of Alcohol on the
Cardiovascular System
It has long been disputed whether alcohol serves any beneficial health purposes. As we have seen, alcohol has reportedly been used for hundreds of years under the heading of medicine, but often those claims were false. Recent studies have only added to the confusion with contradictory findings about the health effects of regular wine drinking.
Dr. Joseph Woo, in his article “Toast to Your Health”, claims that the beneficial effects of moderate consumption far outweigh the risks and should be taken seriously. Studies stemming as far back as 1979 have concluded that cultures that encourage the regular consumption of red wine have far fewer deaths due to coronary heart disease. This phenomena is often referred to as the “French” or “Mediterranean” Paradox. A 1992 study showed that “dairy fat consumption is highly correlated with coronary heart disease (CHD) mortality” yet a few French cities had high intake rates of dairy fat but low incidence of CHD. A negative correlation between wine intake and factors contributing to CHD was discovered (25).
This prompted the Am
erican Heart Association to announce that health benefits of alcohol, although limited to one or two drinks per day, existed. They did a study in conjunction with the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study Group in 1997 and concluded that “regular moderate alcohol consumers were at as much as a 62% lower risk of stroke than non-drinkers, but those drinking up to two drinks per day only decreased their risk 45%” (25).
Red wine has been proven to have antioxidants that prevent against atherosclerosis because they slow the cell oxidation process. It has been suggested that flavonoids present in certain fruits and vegetables “act as antioxidants and prevent the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, a step that facilitates plaque formation” (24). It is this plaque that hardens making arteries inflexible and it can build up causing the constriction of blood flow.
In March of 2003 an alternative view of such studies was published in
the Internal Medicine News. In it Dr. Suerko, director of the Cholesterol, Genetics, and Heart Disease Institute, stated that “alcohol plays a considerable role in the alarming rate of obesity” and that reports from these studies have only perpetuated the misinterpretation that consuming alcohol is good for you (13). It is his belief that health organizations should concentrate on encouraging Americans to become more physically fit and to eat fewer calories rather than allow them to believe that alcohol will reverse the damage they have inflicted upon their cardiovascular systems.
Furthermore alcohol is high in calories, “one glass of wine may contain as many calories as a Snickers bar” and a high-sugar diet increases serum triglycerides, lowers HDL cholesterol, and contributes to weight gain” (13). Any benefit to the formation of plaque is thus outweighed by the increased effect on factors contributing to Heart Disease.
Alcohol Abuse
Health Effects
Alcohol abuse has become a problem in societies that allow the use of alcohol. Abuse includes the regular intake of large quantities of alcohol, especially drinking for the purpose of getting drunk often. This repeated behavior leads to the deterioration of the body’s ability to break down the alcohol. According to howstuffworks.com, “In the United States, approximately 8 percent of people aged 18 and older suffer from alcohol abuse and/or dependence” (9).
Because the liver is primarily responsible for the breakdown of alcohol in the body, it often is the organ most affected by abuse. As the drinker becomes more tolerant, he/she must increase their intake to feel the intoxicating effects. Thus, the liver must work harder and harder to compensate. Eventually the liver’s ability to produce the enzymes responsible for this breakdown is hindered, resulting in the death of liver cells and the possible hardening of tissue (better known as cirrhosis) (9).
Similarly cells in the brain also get worn out and die, the stomach and intestine often develop ulcers, and blood pressure increases. Eventually alcohol consumption accompanied by poor nutrition hinders sperm production (9). The female reproductive system is also affected as “malignancies in the breast are known to increase” and the health of the uterine lining is compromised (24). Abusers also face the reality of an increased risk of all types of cancer (24).
Alcoholism Among Native Americans
Attention has recently been brought to the high levels of alcohol abuse and addiction among the Native American population. These studies have dealt primarily with Native Americans that are still occupying reservations, however; the same patterns hold for Native Alaskans and others that have long since moved from the reservation.
Historians identify the use of alcohol as a main form of currency during
the colonial period as a large part of the problem that would befall future generations. The introduction was so rapid that the individual Native American tribes were unable to adapt laws and regulations to control alcohol. According to Fred Beauvais, an expert on Native American issues, this historical acceptance of drunkenness and addiction has lead to the continuation of this behavior for generations (4).
Various studies have shown that the level of alcoholism raises the farther the tribe is from the equator (as seems to hold for other cultures). Reservation hospitals in the Northern Midwest have consistently had the highest number of alcohol related treatments (4).
Abus
e among teenagers is significantly higher within the Native American population. For example, 71% of youth in grades 7-12 admitted to using alcohol and 55% had been drunk. Although these numbers seem high, the more startling statistic claims that 34% of this group had been drunk in the past month. Marijuana use also seems to follow this alarming rate. Among the same age group 50% had admitted to having used marijuana while only 12% of non-Indian youth had (4). Unfortunately the instances of mental illness and suicide are also significantly higher among Native Americans.
Related Problems
Binge Drinking
Binge drinking occurs whenever a person consumes more than five drinks in one evening. It may also be defined as drinking for the purposes of getting drunk. According to a study done by the Harvard School of Public Health in 1999, 47% of American college students consume alcohol to get drunk. This topic has become especially meaningful due to the recent deaths of several college students. American college campuses have become increasingly sensitive to this issue, but most don’t realize that binge drinking has become a global problem.
The United Kingdom has recently started a governmental health innitiative to battle its increasing problem. Binge drinking has been linked to as many as “22,000 premature deaths in the UK each year” which translates to about “60 per day” (22). Because Northern European culture is “based on beer and socializing in pubs with drinking and public drunkenness being regularly accepted” an end to such behavior is unlikely (22). The government blames an increase in advertising aimed at youth as a primary factor in the sharp rise in youth binge drinking in recent years.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Fetal alcoh
ol syndrome has only recently received the attention that it deserves. Many think that all forms of alcohol related birth defects fall into this category, but this is just not so. What is typically lumped together as Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) also includes Alcohol-Related Neurodevelopmental Disorder (ARND) and Alcohol-Related Birth Defects (ARBD). Most people affected by prenatal alcohol exposure do not have FAS, the most serious of the three disorders, but still have serious brain impairments.(21). The distinction among the three is important as “12,000 infants are born with FAS each year and three times as many have ARND or ARBD” (21).
Babies born with FAS have facial abnormalities, growth deficiencies, and evidence of central nervous system dysfunction. All three of these disorders include different levels of mental retardation, poor motor skills, and hand-eye coordination (21). They may also experience some level of difficulty with memory, attention, and judgment.
It is important to note that all three impairments are 100% preventable. The pregnant mother passes alcohol through her bloodstream to the placenta. The fetus’ system absorbs alcohol in much the same way its mother does and thus receives contaminated nourishment as well (21). It has been proven that alcohol also “damages the embryonic cell layer that develops into the bones and cartilage of the head and face” which leads to the facial abnormalities seen in most with FAS (21). The damage done is lifelong; the affected individual can only learn to cope with his/her disabilities. This group of disorders is considered the number one nonhereditary cause of mental retardation (21).
Cost of Alcohol to Society
Cocktailtimes.com reported that “Americans spent more than $68 billion on spirits, wine, and beer in restaurants and bars in 2002” (10). But this is not the only cost r
elated to alcohol consumption. In Metropolitan Life Insurance Company’s 1999 Statistical Bulletin, it estimated the total cost of alcohol to society to be $148 billion. This number includes all of the life and auto insurance claims, traffic tickets and fines, court fees, burial costs, medical fees, and lost pay related to alcohol in that year. The total amount related to alcohol and drug abuse was “$246 billion, which translates to $965 for every adult, adolescent, and child living in the United States during that year” (20).
Costs also extend to the costs of adjudicating alcohol related crimes and providing for those convicted. Newly added costs include alcohol prevention programs and state funded recovery centers. While initial results have been positive, the problem is expanding faster than the states can build treatment facilities and jails to house those who abuse alcohol and need such treatment (20).
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