New Page 1

Before Marco Polo, Christopher Columbus, Ferdinand Magellan, and others began sailing around the world, the Ancient Greeks, Egyptians, China, Arabs, India, and Southeast Asia were already engaging in spice trading. Spices such as cinnamon and cassia, as well as black pepper and ginger were being traded from India to the Greeks. The Ancient Spice Trades date back to 5200 years ago in Egypt and 4500 years ago in other countries. Some scholars believe that spices were being used in biblical times, for the use of money, before records were being kept. Egyptians used spices for religious ceremonies, for embalming, and to produce fragrant smoke during ritualized cremation of the dead (Simpson, Conner 196). It was not until Egypt's demand for spices, that set trade routes to Southeast Asia and China which crisscrossed the Middle East, Arabia, and India by 1400 B.C.

Spice trading kicked off with Alexander the Great conquering Egypt, and established the port city of Alexandria, which became the leading trading center for spices from the East and a meeting place for traders from Europe, Asia, and Africa. But the only demand for spices was not coming from Egypt alone, but the Roman Empire was expanding its application in medicine and luxury items (perfumes, bath oils, and lotions) (Levetin, McMahon 270). Rome began trading directly with India by ship, via the Red Sea, to the Indian Ocean, thus breaking the centuries-old Arab monopoly on spice trading. The Roman civilization spread its influence through Europe, introducing exotic spices to the local tribes. While the great powers of Egypt and Rome established themselves as world spice trading powers, islands off to the east known as the Spice Islands, were full of more exotic spices and herbs waiting to be discovered. When Rome fell in 476 A.D., the trade between Europe and the East virtually disappeared; several centuries elapsed before the spice trade actively resumed (Levetin, McMahon 272). The Arabs assumed control of Alexandria and from their Europe's supply of spices was sharply reduced during the Dark Ages (A.D. 641 to 1096). The Crusades began after 1096 A.D. and the crusaders fighting in Palestine and Syria were exposed to new and exotic flavors. Venice and Genoa gradually became centers of trade, linking Europe to the Near East and Far East (Simpson, Conner, 198). The search for new trade routes and sources of spices escalated after the Crusades (Simpson, Conner, 199).

Spices were valued, as they are today, for the exciting flavor they can add to food and drinks. They were also highly valued as medicines. The Spice Islands offered exotic spices and herbs to the rich of Europe. The Arab, Chinese, and Indian merchants traded with the Spice Islands long before Europe entered into the trade with its demand for wealth. They were in search of nutmeg and cloves, which were grown in the Moluccas. Expeditions would be launched in search for these spices. First Portugal, then Spain and England, then Holland and eventually even the newly founded United States entered one of history's most exciting contests.

Marco Polo a Venetian trader, began his 24 year voyage at the age of 17 in 1271 with his father and uncle. They traveled all over Asia, Java, Kublai Khan, the kingdom of Dely, and the land of the Tartars. He would later write a book of traveler's tales entitled The Travels of Marco Polo, telling about the amazing spices he'd seen grown in these countries. He would describe the kingdom of Dely as a place that "produced large quantities of pepper and ginger, with many other articles of spicery."(ASTA's World of Spice). He also detailed the spice plantations of Java, the immense pepper stores in China, and the abundance of cinnamon, pepper, and ginger on the Malabar coast of India (Levetin, McMahon, 272). The search for sea routes to the East was in progress!

"In 1492 Columbus sailed the ocean blue" under the flag of Spain of course. After his first failure to discover a trade route to China and Japan, Columbus persuaded Queen Isabella and King Ferdinand to finance 3 more voyages. Trying to find a route for the Spice Islands in the East, Columbus sailed to the West hoping to run into the Spice Islands. Instead, he found the NEW WORLD. Spain claimed the new world and all the many plants it had to offer such as yams, sweet potatoes, cassava, kidney beans, maize, capsicum peppers, and tobacco. Columbus died in 1506, it journey ended in a "discovery worth far more than the spices he was seeking." (Levetin, McMahon, 272).

Several years later the Portuguese, sailing for Spain, jumped into the contest with their very own Magellan leading the voyage. He discovered what Columbus was originally looking for, a route to the Spice Islands from the west. After this discovery they realized that many important oriental spices that Europe demanded, such as cloves, nutmeg, mace, and pepper, were native to these Spice Islands. (Levetin, McMahon, 272).

Think of your favorite smell in the world. Your favorite smell may be a spice, herb, or perfume. These smells come from what is called essential oils, volatile substances that contribute to the essence or aroma of certain species (Levetin, McMahon, 270). Essential oils are widely distributed in plant organs but are most commonly found in leaves, flowers, and fruits, where they occur in specialized cells or glands. These oils need to be extracted from the plant to catch the essence of it. Although the essential oils are important for the making of spices, herbs, and perfumes, it is considered a secondary plant product, a compound that occurs in plants but is not critical for the plant's basic metabolic function (Levetin, McMahon, 270).

About this Plant
Botanical name:	Crocus sativus
Native to:	Western Asia, Southern Europe
Parts used as Spice:	Stigma
Other uses:	Natural coloring agent

The word saffron is from the Arabic word zafaran, which means yellow. Every autumn the appearance of purple flowers signals the beginning of the saffron harvest (Levetin, McMahon, 277). It is composed of the dried red brown stigmas of the flower of a plant. Each saffron flower has only three stigmas, which must be handpicked as soon as the flowers open. Saffron's color comes from carotenoid pigments, chiefly red, which are so powerful a coloring agent (reddish yellow) that one part of pure crocin dissolved in 150,000 parts water turns the water distinctively yellow. The same coloring agent is found in yellow egg yolk and yellow corn (Rinzler, p.138). The blooming period is short, about 2 weeks, and the flowers must be picked in full bloom before wilting; often the critical time period for harvesting is limited to a few hours. Once picked, the flowers must be carefully stripped of their orange-red three-parted stigmas; again, haste is important to remove the stigmas before the petals wilt (Levetin, McMahon, p.277). After the stigmas are removed, they are dried by slow roasting and sold either as saffron threads (whole stigmas) or powdered. The flavor and aroma of saffron are pungent, slightly bitter, and musky (Levetin, McMahon, p.277).

Adverse effects: Crocin is a choleretic, and agent that stimulates the liver to increase its production of bile. This yellow brown or green fluid helps emulsify fats in your duodenum and increases peristalsis, the rhythmic contractions that move food through your gastrointestinal tract. This my pose some problems for people with gallbladder or liver disease (Rinzler, p.139).

In cooking: To bring out the flavor of saffron, stir it into 1 tablespoon hot water before adding it to your dish. Turmeric can be used as an inexpensive substitute for saffron (Rinzler, p.139). Saffron is widely used in French, Spanish, Middle Eastern, and Indian cooking (Levetin, McMahon, p.277).

In 1998, the retail price of saffron in parts of the United States was approximately $8.50 per gram, making it the most expensive spice in the world (Levetin, McMahon, p.277).

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Cinnamomum zeylanicum
Also known as:	Sweetwood, true cinnamon
Native to:	Sri Lanka, Sumatra, Borneo
Parts used as spice:	Bark
Medicinal properties:	Carminative
Other uses:	Flavoring for toothpaste, perfume

Cinnamon comes from the dried inner bark of a tropical evergreen laurel tree. Don't confuse cassia, which looks and tastes like cinnamon. After the bark is peeled off the tree it is left to dry and ferment for 24 hours. Then the outer layer of the bark is scraped off, leaving the inner, light-colored bark, which curls into quills as it dries. Removing the outer bark makes the cinnamon less biting and mellows its aroma (Rinzler, p.55). Imperfect quills and trimmings are ground into powdered cinnamon (Leveting, McMahon, p.274). Most of the "cinnamon" sold in the United States is actually a blend of cinnamon and cassia, but if you were to sample plain cassia an dplain cinnamon, you would find cassia's flavor bitter, while cinnamon's is warm and "sweet." Cassia also has a stronger scent, and it is darker (reddish brown versus tan). "Cinnamon sticks" made of true cinnamon look like quills (a single tube); "cinnamon sticks" made from cassia are rolled from both sides toward the center so that they end up looking like scrolls (Rinzler, p.55).

Cinnamon contains irritants that may cause contact dermatitis (burning, itching, stinging, and reddened or blistered skin) in sensitive individuals (Rinzler, p.55).

Benefits: Cinnamon is a carminative (an agent that helps break up intestinal gas).

Adverse effects: People who are sensitive to cinnamon may develop dermatitis after using perfume, soap, mouthwash or toothpaste scented or flavored with cinnamon (Rinzler, p.55)

Around the house: To freshen your kitchen, boil 1 teaspoon of ground cinnamon or one cinnamon stick in 3 cups of water in an open saucepan on top of the stove. Do not use the sticks if you are sensitive to cinnamon (Rinzler, p.56).

Chinese herbalists tell of older people, in their 70s and 80s, developing a cough accompanied by frequent spitting of whitish phlegm. A helpful remedy, they suggest, is chewing and swallowing a very small pinch of powdered cinnamon. Should be of the highest quality, determined by a bitter-sweet taste. If too bitter and/or not oily, the quality is poor. This remedy can also help people with cold feet and hands, especially at night. (Medicinal Herbs Online)

Cinnamon was probably the first spice used by man. Ancient records reveal that it was used for more than 5,000 years. (Medicinal Herbs Online) It's one of the oldest and most valuable spices known (Levetin, McMahon, 274).

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Piper nigrum
Also known as:	Pepper
Native to:	India and the East Indies, Sumatra, Java, Sri Lanka
Parts used as spice:	Fruit (berry)
Medicinal properties:	Irritant, diaphoretic
Other uses:	Natural insecticide

Pepper thrives in a hot wet climate and there is not only black and white pepper, but green pepper as well. These peppercorns are the fruits of a tropical vine. Black peppercorns are berries that are picked unripe and allowed to dry in the sun, which develops their color and flavor. They are sold whole or as a powder (Rinzler, p.29). White peppercorns, sold whole or as a powder, are berries that are allowed to mature before they are picked. After they are picked, they are soaked in water, stripped of their outer covering and allowed to dry in the sun, which bleaches them (Rinzler, p.29). All peppercorns get their flavor fromt eh alkaloids piperine, piperidine and chavicin. Although white pepper is considered more attractive than black pepper in cream sauces and soups, it tastes just like black pepper (Rinzler, p.29). Because the biting flavor is due to volatile oils, peppercorns begin to lose their flavor after grinding; for this reason, teh taste of freshly ground pepper is often preferred (Levetin, McMahon, p.274).

Piperine, piperidine and chavicin are diaphoretics (chemicals that make you perspire) and irritants. Black pepper also contains small amounts of safrole, a known carcinogen also found in sassafras. In experimental research, extracts of black pepper have caused tumors in laboratory mice when administered daily for three months. The doses were more than 80 times as high as the average amount of pepper consumed each day by human beings. Pepper is not considered a human carcinogen (Rinzler, p.29).

Benefits: Because pepper irritates mucous membranes, highly spiced foods may be beneficial when you have hay fever or a head cold. The spice irritates tissues inside your nose and throat, causing them to weep a watery secretion that makes it easier for you to cough up mucus or to blow your nose. Pepper also makes you perspire. Because perspiration acts as a natural air conditioner, cooling your body as the moisture evaporates from your skin, peppery foods are popular in warm climates (Rinzler, p.29-30).

Adverse effects: Eating peppered foods may upset your stomach, irritate your bladder so that you have to urinate more frequently or even make urination itself painful (Rinzler, p.30).

In cooking: Grind peppercorns right before you use them; the intact peppercorn holds its flavor better than ground pepper. For maximum freshness, grind peppercorns in a metal or plastic peppermill rather than a wooden one (Rinzler, p.30). Pepper has a natural affinity for dishes made with allspice, cinnamon or cloves, deepening the flavor and giving it a pleasant bite. Add a pinch of pepper to hot chocolate, eggnog, spice wine punch, apple pie, baked apples or applesauce, baked pear and, of course, gingerbread (Rinzler, p.30).

As a home remedy: To relieve the congestion of a head cold or a cough, spice your chicken soup with some pepper (Rinzler, p.30).

In the garden: Piperine is a natural insecticide considered more toxic to houseflies than pyrethrins, the natural insecticide derived from chrysanthemums. To protect your plants, spray them with a solution of one-half teaspoon ground pepper in one quart of warm water (Rinzler, p.31).

Pepper has been in "constant use since ancient times both in food and medicine" said John Hill in 1751. There are three kinds of peppers used in medicine: black, white, and long. Pepper was mainly used to assist digestion. "The common people of the East Indies think it a great stomachic, and drink a strong infusion of it in water by way of giving them a appetite." (Crellin, Philpott, p.331). Pepper was mentioned in almost all books on materia medica until the 20th century, its medical reputation had declined around 1850. It was used in medicine chiefly "to correct the flatulent or griping qualities of certain articles of diet." Stimulant action continued to be mentioned occasionally, along with employment for colds, but medical usage continued to fade (Crellin, Philpott, p.332). Pepper has a long-standing reputation for settling the stomach.

Pepper is the most widely used spice today, but was once a precious and most desired commodity (Levetin, McMahon, p.274).

Vanilla is the only member of the orchid family used as food. The part used as a spice is the unripe fruit, which looks like a pod and is known as a "bean." The most important flavoring and aroma chemical in vanilla is vanillin, a white or slightly yellow substance whose pleasant taste and smell develop when vanilla beans are allowed to dry and ferment ("cure") after picking (Rinzler, p.169). In unripe beans the vanillin is bound to a sugar molecule. While the beans ferment, their enzymes separate the vanillin from the sugar molecule, creating the characteristic vanilla flavor and aroma. The cured beans are then chopped and covered with a warm alcohol/ water solution that draws out the flavor. When the flavor is strong enough, the liquid ("extract") is drawn off, strained and aged for about a month to polish the flavor (Rinzler, p.169). Vanilla beans are not the only source of vanilla flavoring. Synthetic vanillin can be made from eugenol (the flavoring ingredient in oil of cloves), guaiacol (white or yellow crystals isolated from resin in hardwoods) or lignin (a woody fiber in plants) (Rinzler, p.169). Ethyl vanillin is a synthetic flavoring whose flavor and aroma are stronger than vanillin's. The only ingredients in a product labeled Vanilla Extract are vanilla and alcohol. A typical "imitation vanilla" flavoring contains water, propylene glycol (a solvent), alcohol, artificial and natural flavorings that may include as much as 20% pure vanilla extract, sugar, caramel color, dextrose and sodium benzoate (a preservative) (Rinzler, p.169).

Vanillin is an irritant that may cause contact dermatitis (itching, burning, stinging, reddened or blistered skin) (Rinzler, p.170).

Adverse effects: Prolonged handling of vanilla beans may cause vanillism, whose symptoms include contact dermatitis and headaches. Vanillism is most commonly found among food workers who sort and process vanilla beans. Vanilla is also a choleretic, an agent that stimulates the liver to increase its production of bile. This yellow brown or green fluid helps emulsify fats in your duodenum and increases peristalsis, the rhythmic contractions that move food through your gastrointestinal tract. May pose some problems for people with gallbladder or liver disease (Rinzler, p.170).

In cooking: A 1-inch vanilla bean, scraped, equals the flavor of 1 teaspoon vanilla extract. To make your own vanilla extract, put one vanilla bean into a 350 milliliter bottle of vodka or brandy. (If necessary, break the bean into two or three pieces.) Close the bottle tightly, and let it stand for at least three weeks; then use the vodka or brandy as a substitute for commercial vanilla extract. Remember, the longer the bean is left in the bottle the stronger the vanilla flavor will be (Rinzler, p.170).

As a cosmetic: The scent of vanilla is a delicious perfume. Pour a few drops of vanilla extract on a small piece of absorbent cotton and tuck it in your bra. Do not put it on your skin, it may be irritating (Rinzler, p.170).

Around the house: A vanilla-scented cotton ball will serve as a sachet to perfume a dresser drawer (Rinzler, p.170).

After their introduction to Spain, their cultivation and use spread through out Europe, Asia, and Africa. The Spanish named the plant "pimiento" after their name for black peppercorns, "pimienta". This is the first example of the names being confusing (Capsicum Pepper). Capsicum peppers are the fruits of plants belonging to a single genus in the tomato family (Solanaceae), Capsicum, which includes five cultivated species and hundreds of varieties (Levetin, McMahon, p.277). Capsicum annuum is the most widely cultivated of these species throughout the world and includes the mild sweet bell peppers as well as many varieties of hot peppers such as cayenne. This species is a small bushy herbaceous annual that produces small white flowers similar to those of tomato or potato. The fruits are berries that vary considerably in shape, size, and color among the hundreds of varieties; the immature fruits are green, and the mature fruits vary in color from yellow to purple to bright red and in shape from long and narrow to almost spherical. Capsicum frutescens is cultivated mainly in the tropics and warm temperate areas and generally has a more fiery taste such as tabasco peppers. Capsicum chinense, despite its scientific name, has South American origins. This species includes the habanero, the hottest chili pepper known. Capsicum baccatum is the most widely grown pepper in South America, where it is called aji. Grown in the highlands of Central and South America, Capsicum pubescens is least known of the domesticated chilies (Levetin, McMahon, p.277-278). The biting taste of capsicum peppers is due to the mixture of seven related alkaloids, of which capsaicin is the most prevalent. Capsaicinoids are mainly found in the seeds and placental areas (where seeds attach to the ovary wall) (Levetin, McMahon, p.278).

Benefits: Capsaicin works as an analgesic and there are intriguing associations between how the body perceives capsaicin and extreme heat. It appears that hot temperatures and capsaicin trigger the same pain-sensing nerve fibers, thus, we perceive the taste of a chili pepper as hot. Application of capsaicin as an analgesic cream either eventually desensitizes or may actually destroy the nerve fibers. Either way, an arthritis sufferer applying capsaicin cream or the habitual chili eater feels less heat or less pain. Creams applied also relieves pain from shingles, cluster headaches, and other ailments (Levetin, McMahon, p.278). The plants have also been used as folk remedies for dropsy, colic, diarrhea, asthma, arthritis, muscle cramps, and toothache (Capsicum Pepper). Pepper fruits are also excellent sources of vitamin C; even one pepper is more than enough to satisfy the daily requirement. The amount of vitamin C is actually higher in peppers than in citrus fruits (Levetin, McMahon, p.278).

Adverse effects: Prolonged contact with the skin may cause dermatitis and blisters, while excessive consumption can cause gastroenteritis and kidney damage. Paprika and cayenne pepper may be cytotoxic to mammalian cells in vitro. Consumption of red pepper may aggravate symptoms of duodenal ulcers. High levels of ground hot pepper have induced stomach ulcers and cirrhosis of the liver in laboratory animals. Body temperature, flow of saliva, and gastric juices may be stimulated by capsicum peppers (Capsicum Pepper).

Many varieties of capsicum peppers are sold whole, either fresh or dried, while powders are prepared by grinding the dried fruits of several varieties (Levetin, McMahon, p.278). To spice up your cuisine add a Capsicum Pepper or mix with your favorite spice, but keep in mind the hot taste that follows!

Capsicum Peppers are described as being "extreme hot and dry, even in the fourth degree," and are recommended for a skin infection commonly known then as the King's Evil, popular in the 1500's. The incidence of blood clots in countries that routinely use curry in their cuisines is much lower than in the United States. Herbs such as turmeric, garlic, cayenne, usual ingredients in curry powder, are believed to help prevent platelets from sticking together and forming dangerous blood clots that could result in heart attacks and stroke. (Medicinal Herbs Online).

This spice was long used by the Mayan civilization and was not discovered by Europeans until 1570s. Allspice is the dried, nearly ripe fruit of an evergreen tree that grows in Jamaica, Mexico, Guatemala and Honduras. It is called allspice because it tastes like a natural combination of cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves; up to 70% of the oil extracted from allspice is eugenol, the spicy smelling oil that gives cloves their characteristic taste and is also found in cinnamon and nutmeg (Rinzler, p.3). This spice, unlike capsicum peppers and vanilla, has never been successfully cultivated outside the Western Hemisphere; Jamaica controls the world production of allspice today (Levetin, McMahon, p.279). Ground allspice is an ingredient used for flavoring ice cream, candy, baked goods, cooked fruits, sauces, chewing gum and relishes; whole, it is best known for its use in pickling vegetables and meats (Levetin, McMahon, p.279). Allspice is available as whole, small reddish brown berries or as a powder (Rinzler, p.3).

Eugenol, the flavoring oil in allspice, is an irritant and an allergen. It is also an antiseptic and a fungicide (a chemical that kills fungi and mold) (Rinzler, p.3).

Benefits: Like pepper and mustard, allspice can irritate your skin, causing the small blood vessels underneath to expand; the flow of blood to the skin increases making the skin feel warm. Because it contains tannins, which have a mild effect as a local anesthetic, it is sometimes used in folk medicine as a poultice or "plaster" to relieve the pain of arthritis, but it has no lasting medical value (Rinzler, p.3).

Adverse effects: Handling allspice may cause contact dermatitis (itching, burning, stinging, and reddened or blistered skin) (Rinzler, p.3).

In cooking: So long as you use the same form of the spice (that is, whole allspice for whole cloves, ground allspice for ground cloves), you can use allspice measure for measure as a substitute for cinnamon, cloves or nutmeg. To make a substitute for allspice, combine one part nutmeg with two parts each cinnamon and cloves (Rinzler, p.3-4).

Around the house: Allspice makes a wonderful air freshner. To mask kitchen odors, boil one teaspoon whole or ground allspice in two cups water on top of the stove, and let the aroma drift pleasantly (Rinzler, p.4).

Smith's Dictionary of Economic Plants states: "In Jamaica the berries are highly spoken of as a substitute for tobacco, being odoriferous, but they require a long pipe to smoke them, when they afford a treat unknown in smoking tobacco." (Medicinal Herbs Online).

In a 1979 Canadian study of 408 patients with eczema on their hands, 19 had a positive reaction to a patch test with allspice (Rinzler, p.3).

Cloves are the dried flower buds of a tropical evergreen tree that is a member of the myrtle family. They are picked just before they open into pinkish green blossoms, then dried in the open air until they turn dark brown. It takes 5,000 to 7,000 dried cloves to make a pound (Rinzler, p.56). Cloves, which are available whole or ground, are also used as an ingredient in several popular spice mixtures such as pumpkin pie and curry powders. Cloves are also used in dessersts, beverages, meats, pickling, sauces, and gravies (Levetin, McMahon, p.275). The spicy sweet flavor and aroma of cloves comes from eugenol, the primary constituent (82%-87%) of oil of cloves, which also contains caryophyllene, an oily liquid that smells like a cross between cloves and turpentine. Oil of cloves is a popular perfume used in a wide variety of cosmetics including toothpastes, soaps and body lotions (Rinzler, p.56).

Eugenol is a local anesthetic used in dental fillings and cement; a rubifacient (an agent that irritates the skin and causes small blood vessels underneath to dilate so that more blood flows to the surface of the skin, making it warmer); and a carminative (an agent that breaks up intestinal gas) (Rinzler, p.57). It is also an irritant and an allergic sensitizer. Eugenol is closely related to safrole, a known carcinogen that causes liver cancer in laboratory animals (Rinzler, p.57).

Adverse effects: Contact with cloves may cause contact dermatitis (itching, burning, stinging, reddened or blistered skin). Because eugenol can be irritating to the intestinal tract, cloves are usually excluded from a bland diet (Rinzler, p.57).

In cooking: Ground cloves, made without the clove heads, are milder in flavor and less irritating than whole cloves. If you prefer cooking with whole cloves, be sure to remove them before you serve the dish. Put the cloves in a tea ball or stud them into an onion or carrot, them simply remove the tea all or vegetable before serving the food (Rinzler, p.57).

Around the house: To make a nonchemical, perfumed air freshener for your closets, stick whole fresh cloves into the peel of a large firm orange until the entire orange is completely covered. Then roll the clove-studded orange in ground cinnamon. Wrap the cinnamon-dusted orange in tissue paper, and put it on your kitchen shelf until the orange dries and shrinks. When the orange is completely dried, unwrap it, dust off any loose cinnamon powder and hang the orange "pomander ball" in your closet. The scent will be lovely (Rinzler, p.57).

The nutmeg tree is an evergreen native to Indonesia and now cultivated in the West Indies. It produces two spices- mace and nutmeg. Nutmeg is the seed kernel inside the tree's fruit; mace is the lacy covering (the aril-a thin, scarlet, netlike covering) on the fruit. When the nutmeg fruit is harvested, its outer husk is broken open and the aril is separated by hand from the seed shell inside. The seed kernel (nutmeg) is left to dry inside the shell. The broken pieces of the aril, known as blades, are dried to develop their strong aroma, then ground to make the powder we call mace (Rinzler, p.95). If the mace comes from Indonesia, it is orange-color; mace from the West Indies is yellowish brown (Rinzler, p.95). Oil of nutmeg from the plant's leaves is also known as oil of mace. Oil of nutmeg from the kernel, which flavors the aril (mace), is also known as oil of myristica (Rinzler, p.95). Oil of nutmeg contains peppery scented, mint-flavored borneol; spicy, clove-scented eugenol, the chief constituent of oil of cloves; rose-scented geraniol; lavender-scented linalool; and two suspected hallucinogens, myristicin and elemicin. Oil from nutmegs grown in Indonesia contains safrole, the principal flavoring in sassafras (Rinzler, p.95)

Nutmeg Benefits: NONE
Nutmeg Adverse effects: Nutmeg, like black pepper, chili powder, cloves, and mustard seeds, is a gastric irritant that increases the secretion of stomach acids. It is usually prohibited on a bland diet.

In cooking: One whole nutmeg grated equals 2 to 3 teaspoons of ground nutmeg (Rinzler, p.115). Although its flavor is slightly stronger, mace can be used as a substitute for nutmeg (Rinzler, p.96).

Although nutmeg and mace were not known to the ancient Western civilizations, they had reached Europe by the twelfth century and were two of the precious spices of the Middle Ages. Later, the Portuguese, and then the Dutch, controlled production of these spices in the Spice Islands until the French smuggled seedlings to their island colonies. Yankee traders in the nineteenth century developed a profitable scam by producing fake wooden nutmegs, which they sold as the real thing. The nickname of Connecticut, the "Nutmeg State", reflects this historical anecdote (Levetin, McMahon, p.276).

The mint family, Lamiaceae, is the source of many important and familiar herbs: spearmint, peppermint, marjoram, oregano, rosemary, sage, sweet basil, thyme, savory, and others. The Mediterranean region is an important center of origin for the mint family, and a variety of these herbs have been used for thousands of years by the civilizations that developed in this area. Members of this family include mainly herbaceous plants and small shrubs, characterized by square stems and aromatic simple leaves with numerous oil glands (Levetin, McMahon, p.280).

Oregano was used by the ancient Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, who employed the herbs both for cooking and medicine (Levetin, McMahon, p.281). Oregano, popularly known as "pizza herb," is a member of the mint family, a relative of basil and marjoram. Its leaves are small, less than an inch long. They are unusual because they dry quickly and hold their flavor well (Rinzler, p.118). Oregano's falvor comes from oil of origanum, a yellow green, pleasantly scented liquid also used to flavor some liqueurs and to perfume toilet soaps. The most important ingredient in oil of origanum is carvacrol, a thyme-scented liquid also found in thyme, marjoram and summer savory (Rinzler, p.119). Oreganos vary in flavor. Greek oregano (Origanum heraclites) and Spanish oregano (Origanum vivens) are strongly flavored; Italian oregano (Origanum onites) and common oregano (Origanum vulgare) are mild. Mexican oregano (Lippia), also known as Mexican marjoram or Mexican wild sage, is the strongest of the oreganos, strong enough to be used in chili powders and dishes flavored with chili peppers (Rinzler, p.118-119). Oregano sold in the United States is a mixture of various species of dried oregano plus marjoram and thyme (Rinzler, p.119).

Carvacrol is an antifungal and anthelmintic (an agent that kills intestinal worms). It is sometimes used as a disinfectant in the syntheses of organic chemicals, but its most important commercial use is a perfume (Rinzler, p.119).

Benefits: The wild oregano used medicinally is a treasure-house of minerals. Ounce for ounce, it is sixteen times richer in calcium than milk. Very rich in magnesium, copper and zinc, it also has an abundance of flavonoids and chlorophyll, as well. Oil of oregano can be used internally, as well as topically. It’s protection from fungal, viral and bacterial infection is impressive. (Oil of Oregano-A Medicine Chest in a Bottle).

Adverse Effects: Oregano is a choleretic, an agent that stimulates the liver to increase its production of bile, a yellow brown or green fluid. Choleretics are ordinarily beneficial for healthy people, but may pose some problems for people with gallbladder or liver disease (Rinzler, p.119).

In cooking: For the best flavor, dry oregano leaves whole. Crumble them just before you use them. You can substitute oregano for marjoram and vice versa, but not in equal quantities. Always use the same form of the herb (fresh leaves for fresh leaves, dried whole leaves for fried whole leaves and ground leaves for ground leaves) (Rinzler, p.119).

The Greeks used oregano extensively as an antiseptic for a variety of infections, bacterial, as well as fungal. The literal translation of the Greek name “oreganos” is “joy of the mountain”. (Oil of Oregano-A Medicine Chest in a Bottle).

Spearmint have slightly crinkly, pale green leaves. Their flavor and aroma are sweeter and less pungent than those of peppermint leaves. Spearmint's flavor aroma come from oil of spearmint, a colorless, yellow or yellow green liquid that is at least 50% Carvone, a chemical that smells like spearmint (Rinzler, p.159). Oil of spearmint also contains lemon-scented limonene; pinene, which smells like turpentine; and a little bit of menthol. Spearmint leaves taste best when they are freshly picked, but they are sold dried in grocery stores (Rinzler, p.159).

Carvone, limonene, menthol and pinene are irritants that may cause contact dermatitis (itching, burning, stinging, reddened or blistered skin). Limonene and menthol are also allergic sensitizers; exposure to them may make you sensitive to other allergens. Carvone and menthol are carminatives; they help break up and expel intestinal gas (Rinzler, p.159).

Benefits: Long use as a folk remedy suggests that inhaling the pungent fumes from a cup of tea brewed from spearmint leaves may help clear a stuffy nose when you have a cold or the tea may act as an expectorant (an agent that causes the mucous membranes in your bronchial tubes to "weep" watery secretions that may help you cough up mucus), but there is no scientific proof that this is so (Rinzler, p.159).

Adverse effects: Like coffee, fatty food and carbonated beverages, mint oils may irritate the sphincter (muscle ring) at the base of your esophagus, permitting food from your stomach to flow back into the esophagus and create the discomfort we call heartburn (Rinzler, p.159-160).

In cooking: To protect the flavor of dried mint leaves, do not crumble them until you are ready to use them (Rinzler, p.160).

As a home remedy: Spearmint tea may be a triple threat for minor health problems by relieving a mildly upset stomach, soothing a sore throat and helping clear the stuffy nose that comes with a cold (Rinzler, p.160).

Around the house: Mice are reputed to dislike the odor of mint, avoiding any area where mint grows or mint leaves are scattered (Rinzler, p.160).

In the garden: To make a natural pest repellent not poisonous to people or pets, pour 3 cups boiling water over 1 cup spearmint leaves, let steep for 30 minutes and then strain the liquid. Spray y our garden plants to protect them from many common pests. For the best results, spray once a week (Rinzler, p.160).

Mint is used so much that is would be illuminating to count the number of times mint is encountered in just one day. Mint flavoring has become indispensable in everyday life. Mint flavoring is used in perfumes, candies, cookies, cakes, cigarettes, toothpastes, mouthwashes, antacids, soaps, jellies, ice creams, gum, and teas and other drinks (Levetin, McMahon, p.281).

The parsley family, the Apiaceae, which gives us carrots and parsnips, also provides many familiar herbs: parsley, caraway, dill, fennel, celery, anise, coriander, celantro, cumin, and chervil. Annual, biennial, or perennial, the members of this family are easily recognized by their umbels (flat-topped inflorescences) and alternate compound leaves (Levetin, McMahon, p.281). The characteristic fruit for the family is a dry indehiscent schizocarp, which splits into two one-seeded identical halves commercially referred to as seeds. For many plants in this family these fruits are used as the herb; however, for others the fresh or dried leaves are the desired parts (Levetin, McMahon, p.281).

It was the Romans who first valued parsley as a culinary herb, and today it an almost indispensable ingredient in many dishes (Levetin, McMahon, p.281). Parsley comes in two basic versions: flat leaved and curly leaved. The curly leaf is prettier as a garnish, but the flat leaf has a stronger, more intense flavor. The leaves and stems of both kinds of parsley get their characteristic flavor and aroma from parsley leaf oil, which is less bitter than the oil in parsley seeds (Rinzler, p.122). Parsley leaf oil is mostly parsley-flavored apiole, plus myristicin, lavender-scented bergapten, alcohol and the yellow flavonoids (natural pigments) apiin and apigenin (Rinzler, p.122).

Benefits: Fresh parlsey is a good source of vitamin C. One-half cup of chopped fresh parsley provides 45% of the vitamin C a healthy adult needs each day. Fresh parsley is also rich in beta-carotene, the pigment in deep yellow fruits and vegetables that your body can covert to vitamin A. Vitamin A also protects your eyes. According to the American Cancer Society, a diet rich in these foods may lower the risk of some forms of cancer (Rinzler, p.122).

Adverse effects: Prolonged handling of the parsley plant may cause contact dermatitis and make the skin very sensitive to sunlight. These reactions occurs most commonly in food workers who handle large amount of parsley without wearing protective gloves (Rinzler, p.123).

In cooking: Do not tear or cut parsley until you are actually ready to use it. When you cut into a food rich in vitamin C, its cells release an enzyme called ascorbic acid oxidase. This enzyme destroys vitamin C and reduces the nutritional value of the food (Rinzler, p.123). To keep parsley from changing color, add the herb as a garnish after the dish is cooked. Parsley is useful as a cooking aid for reducing the cooking odors of strong vegetables such as onions (Rinzler, p.123).

Parsley had quit the reputation as a "female medicine.". It also had a reputation for a kidney and stomach medicine. It seemed to be fairly popular in the eighteenth century, and was often noted as one of the five greater opening roots (Crellin, Philpott, p.320). One aspect of parsley's reputation mentioned particularly in the literature of the eighteenth century and earlier, is galactogogue action (increasing the flow of breast milk). Then English Midwife (1682), in fact, said it (and smallage) not only could increase the flow of milk but also lust. Reported actions on the uterus (for example, parsley juice was said to cause delivery of a dead child and hasten labor) suggest that a specific physiological effect might be at play rather than a reputation owing much to a theory of deobstruent action (Crellin, Philpott, p.321). There is confidence in parsley's value for some menstrual disorders. It has not been heard as to whether parsley helps with the skin complaints encountered with the menstrual cycle, but it does suggest that, as a diuretic, it can purify the blood and thus improve the skin (Crellin, Philpott, p.321).

Parsley was revered by the early Greeks as symbols of both victory and death and, as such, was used in crowns for champions and wreaths for tombs (Levetin, McMahon, p.281).

The caraway "seeds" (actually the dried ripe fruit) have a warm aroma and flavor that give rye bread and kummel their characteristic tastes. Young caraway leaves can be used to lend the flavor of caraway to salads. Caraway gets it flavor and aroma from oil of caraway. The oil contains carvone, the flavor used in kummel, and limonene, a lemony smelling chemical also found in the oils of lemon, orange and dill (Rinzler, p.37). In addition to flavoring bread, caraway seeds are used in cheeses, soups, sausages, and a variety of meat or vegetable dishes (Levetin, McMahon, p.282).

Carvone and limonene are irritants. Limonene is also a photo sensitizer, a chemical that makes your skin more sensitive to sunlight (Rinzler, p.38).

Adverse effects: Handling the caraway plant can make you skin sensitive to sunlight.

In cooking: Add caraway seeds to a sauce after the dish is cooked; long cooking may turn their flavor bitter. Caraway is sometimes known as "Roman cumin" because ground caraway has a flavor similar to (but slightly lighter than) ground cumin. You can grind or mash caraway seeds and use them as a substitute for cumin in homemade curry or chili powder (Rinzler, p.38).

Carum carvi, is one of the oldest herbs known. The use of these seeds is thought to have originated with the ancient Arabs, who called the seeds Karawya, which is the source of the English word (Levetin, McMahon, p.282).

Brassicaceae, the mustard family, gives us many important vegetable crops such as cabbage, broccoli, cauliflower, Brussels sprouts, turnips, and radishes, as well as two flavorful herbs or condiments, mustard and horseradish. Members of this family are easily recognized by their characteristic flowers, each with four petals arranged in a cross, which accounts for the old family name, the Cruciferae. This family is especially abundant in the Mediterranean area (Levetin, McMahon, p.282).

Mustard is a thoroughly economical plant. Its greens can be boiled and served as a vegetable; its flowers and seed pods can be used in salads; and its seeds are ground to make the condiment we call "mustard," the second most popular spice in the United States ( pepper is number one) (Rinzler, p.109). Mustard produced from the seeds of Brassica alba, white mustard, is somewhat milder tasting than the more pungent product of black mustard (Levetin, McMahon, p.282). The most important flavoring chemical in black or brown mustard seed is sinigrin. Whole mustard seeds have no particular flavor, but when you crack or grind the seeds to make the powder ("mustard flour") sold as dry mustard, you tear their cell walls. This releases enzymes that cause sinigrin to break down into allyl isothiocyanate, which gives the mustard its characteristic bitter taste. Forerunners, of today's prepared mustard can be traced back to the late Middle Ages, when crushed mustard seed was mixed with vinegar to prepare a sauce (Levetin, McMahon, p.282). To develop the sharp, stinging flavor of the mustard oils in the seeds, you must add a liquid. The liquid that most effectively triggers the enzyme action that develops the flavor of the mustard is tepid water, but dry mustard mixed with water loses flavor quickly. To preserve the flavor of a mustard flour paste, you need an acid liquid, such as vinegar or wine. The simplest prepared mustard is mustard flour plus an acid (wine or vinegar) and a coloring agent such as turmeric to make the mustard yellower. Some prepared mustards also contain sugar and artificial flavors plus wheat flour to make the mustard smoother (Rinzler, p.109-110).
Whole seeds and ground seeds are two other ways that mustard is marketed; the whole seeds are primarily for pickling, but the ground mustard finds its way into hundreds of recipes (Levetin, McMahon, p.282).

Oil of mustard is a rubefacient (rube= red; faciere= to make). It irritates the skin and dilates the small blood vessels underneath. This increases the flow of blood to the skin, turns it red and makes it feel warm. In strong concentrations or if left on too long, "mustard plasters" may burn the skin (Rinzler, p.110).

In concentrated form, mustard is an emetic, a substance that causes vomiting. It is also a secretagogue and irritant, stimulating the secretion of stomach acid and triggering the contractions we call hunger pangs. That's why many people believe it may help stimulate a flagging appetite (Rinzler, p.110).

Benefits: Mustard greens are an excellent source of beta-carotene, the vitamin A precursor in deep yellow fruits and vegetables. It also helps protect your eyes (Rinzler, p.110).

Adverse effects: Because it stimulates the production of stomach acid, mustard is prohibited on a bland diet (Rinzler, p.110).

The uses of mustard seeds are well known today, but seeds mainly were an ingredient in "drawing" respiratory ailments. "Sauce" was mention too, made from pounding mustard seed and vinegar; "good to be eaten with anything because it helped digestion, warmed the stomach, and provoked appetite. (Crellin, Philpott, p.311). Mustard in fact "was an aid to digestion" but too much of it could make you sick. One writer said the mustard "should be taken everyday for three or four weeks." Interest in mustard as a counterirritant, that is, a remedy which by irritating the skin was intended to counter or check deeper-lying affections, remained generally popular until new drugs replaced it in the 1940s and 1950s (Crellin, Philpott, p.311). Mustard was also used by people "soaking their feet in mustard baths to treat colds and using mustard plasters everywhere from the soles of their feet (for colds) to behind the ear (for earache) (Crellin, Philpott, p.311).

Among herbs and spices, mustard is currently the world's most heavily traded commodity, and specialty mustards are some of the trendiest new items in gourmet shops and upscale markets (Levetin, McMahon, p.282).

Although horseradish has a long history of use as a medicinal plant, its use as a condiment dates only from the Middle Ages in Denmark and Germany. Horseradish sauce is prepared from the taproots, which are white and faintly resemble a large misshapen carrot. The pungent aroma and hot biting taste are due to the interaction of two components, sinigrin and myrosin (identical to those found in black mustard), which combine to produce a volatile oil (Levetin, McMahon, p.282). In intact roots, the volatile oil is not produced because the two components occur in separate cells; however, when the roots are scraped or grated, the components are liberated and free to interact. The volatile oil that is produced diffuses easily on exposure to air and the grated condiment quickly loses its pungency (Levetin, McMahon, p.282). Horseradish is widely available fresh or as a prepared condiment. Wasabi, the strong, green Japanese horseradish, is available in Japanese or Oriental grocery stores as a powder or paste (Rinzler, p.82). Wasabi is most often eaten with seafood (Levetin, McMahon, p.283).

Like mustard, horseradish is a rubefacient. When applied as a poultice, it irritates the skin and causes the small blood vessels just under the surface to dilate, increasing the flow of blood and making the skin feel warm (Rinzler, p.83).

Benefits: Fresh horseradish is a good source of vitamin C. One ounce fresh grated horseradish supplies 38% of the vitamin C a healthy adult needs each day (Rinzler, p.83).

Adverse effects: Prepared horseradish, which is high in sodium, is generally excluded from a sodium-restricted diet for people who have high blood pressure or heart disease and are sensitive to salt. Horseradish contains chemicals known as goitrogens. These chemicals make it difficult for the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones. As a result the gland enlarges in an attempt to make more hormones. This is only dangerous to people who have a thyroid disorder, or who are taking thyroid medication (Rinzler, p.83).

In cooking: For the strongest flavor, use freshly grated horseradish. The sulfur-containing mustard oil in prepared horseradish turns bitter when exposed to air. For the best flavor, use the horseradish within a few weeks after you open the jar (Rinzler, p.84).

Horseradish has a long well-established history as a medical herb. In America, influential author R.E. Griffith (1847) stated that as a remedial agent it acted very much like mustard, "but promotes the secretions, especially that of urine, in more marked manner. When taken into the stomach in any quantity, it excited that organ powerfully, and also operates as a sudorific and diuretic." In connection with its association with mustard, Beard (1875) noted that it was sometimes applied to the soles of the feet, mixed with mustard, as a revulsive, to draw out disease (Crellin, Philpott, p.253).

Horseradish and chicory are used at the Passover seder as bitter herbs, commemorating the misery of the Jewish slaves in Egypt.

This plant was introduced as a condiment in England in the 1600s, but according to an herbalist of the era, “only for country people and strong laboring men”. (Medicinal Herbs Online).

There have been at least two reports (one in New York and one in California) of a serious adverse reaction to wasabi: The diner became pale and confused, began to sweat profusely and collapsed after eating a large serving of the condiment. While there were no long-term effects, both reports suggested that this response may be serious in patients with weakened blood vessels in the heart or brain (Rinzler, p.83).

The Liliaceae, which has a worldwide distribution, consists largely of herbaceous perennials that arise from rhizomes, bulb, or corms. Zesty herbs in this family are: onions, garlic, leeks, shallots, and chives (Levetin, McMahon, p.283).

Garlic has had a history predating the ancient Egyptian civilization. It is one of the oldest cultivated plants used for both culinary and medicinal purposes. The pungent flavor and scent of garlic is due to the presence of various volatile sulfur compounds that are released when the tissues are cut. These compounds are inactive and are released only through the action of the enzyme allianse. The main ingredient released from garlic is allicin. This molecule is highly reactive and easily change into numerous other sulfur-containing compounds that have a wide range of biological effects (Levetin, McMahon, p.283). An undesirable effect of these sulfur compounds is the lasting aroma of garlic on the breath after ingestion. After digestion, the sulfur compounds are transported by the bloodstream into the lungs, where they may diffuse into the exhaled air (Levetin, McMahon, p.283).
Garlic is available fresh and as dried garlic chips (large pieces of dried garlic); minced garlic (small pieces of dried garlic); garlic powder (ground dried garlic plus an anticaking agent such as tricalcium phosphate, which keeps the garlic powder from absorbing moisture); and garlic salt (a blend of ground garlic and salt). (Rinzler, p.73). The mildest garlic is "elephant garlic", a species with very large, very mild cloves (Rinzler, p.73).

Garlic contains alliin, precursor of the antibiotic chemical allicin. When you crush or slice into a garlic clove, you tear its cell walls, releasing allinase, an enzyme that converts alliin to allicin. In laboratory experiments at the University of Oklahoma, a garlic juice appeared to inhibit the growth of a wide variety of microorganisms, including bacteria, yeast and fungi (Rinzler, p.73-74).
Garlic also contains ajoene, a chemical that may be as effective as aspirin in keeping blood platelets from clumping. Ajoene may account for the results of laboratory experiments suggesting that garlic oil offers some protection against heart attack and stroke (Rinzler, p.74).

Benefits: Oil of garlic is a carminative (an agent that helps break up and expel intestinal gas) and a rubefacient (a chemical that irritates skin and dilates the tiny blood vessels right under the surface, increasing the flow of blood and making the skin feel warmer) (Rinzler, p.74).

Adverse effects: Diallyl disulfide is excreted in perspiration an din air exhaled from the lungs. That is why you smell garlicky after eating garlic (Rinzler, p.74).

In cooking: To peel fresh garlic without having the skin stick to your fingers, drop the cloves in boiling water for 30 seconds, then drain, cool and peel. To get the most flavor from fresh garlic, you must slice through the clove, releasing the odorous strongly flavored oil inside. Either mash the cloves, chop them or wring out the oil with a garlic press (Rinzler, p.74).

The smell is overwhelming, however, it is true that people used it all over their bodies, internally and externally, despite the way they would smell afterwards. Of the many recommended uses, home remedies for chest conditions, applied externally as a poultice or taken internally, have probably been most prominent, at least since the nineteenth century (although the onion has been more popular). In 1880 British authors Bentley and Trimen stated that garlic was "formerly much used in modern practice, but in this country it is now rarely used by the regular practitioner, although it is still employed to some extent in the United States." (Crellin, Philpott, p.221). Garlic poultices were commonly mentioned in regular medical textbooks: "In persistent colds, where the bronchial tubes are particularly affected, a garlic poultice made by pounding the bulbs in a mortar, is a very efficient though disagreeable remedy." (Crellin, Philpott, p.221). Garlic can also be used for sores, ulcers, as a blood purifier and thins the blood, acts on the kidneys, and is capsules for high blood pressure (Crellin, Philpott, p.221).

In Egypt several thousand years before Christ, garlic was given to laborers. The Bible records that the Israelites who lived in Egypt at the time of Moses also ate garlic before their exodus out of that country. The Romans gave garlic to their laborers; and their soldiers ate it in the belief that it inspired courage. Thus it was dedicated to Mars, the Roman god of war. (Medicinal Herbs Online).

"When Satan stepped out from the Garden of Eden after the fall of man, Garlick sprang up from the spot where he placed his left foot, and Onion from that where his right foot touched". Such is the legend some herbalists attributed to the Mohammedans. (Medicinal Herbs Online).

Since the ancients believed that many diseases were the result of evil spells, garlic with its effective medicinal qualities was thought to possess magical power against evil; thus it was used in many charms and countercharms. In Greek legend, Odysseus used moly, a mild garlic, as a charm to keep the sorceress Circe from turning him into a pig. In the Middle Ages, garlic was considered strong against the evil eye, witches, and demons. Another tradition still held in rural New Mexico is the use of garlic as a charm to help a young girl rid herself of an unwanted boyfriend. She first puts a piece of garlic and two crossed pins in a spot where two roads intersect, and then she must get the boy to walk over the charm without noticing it. If the task is accomplished successfully, the boy will miraculously lose all interest in her. (Medicinal Herbs Online).

During the Great Plague epidemic, some herbalists avoided the deadly disease by eating large amounts of garlic and wearing garlic strands around their necks. To date, it has not been determined whether the garlic's antibiotic properties protected these people against the plague, or whether the foul stench of the herb discouraged others from getting close enough to spread their infection. (Medicinal Herbs Online).

Shallots smell and taste like onions, but they look like dark garlic, with clusters of brown-skinned bulbs at the bottom of the plant. Some shallots are gray skinned. The gray shallots have a sharper, stronger flavor than the brown-skinned ones (Rinzler, p.153). Like all onions, shallots get their flavor from sulfur compounds that are activated by the enzyme alliinase when you cut or peel the bulb. When you cook shallots, the heat converts the sulfur compounds to sugars, which is why cooked shallots taste sweet, not sharp (Rinzler, p.153). Shallots are available fresh or freeze-dried.

Adverse effects: The most common side effect of eating onions (including shallots) is bad breath caused by the sulfur compounds in the onions. Cooking breaks down these compounds, so cooked onions are less smelly than raw ones (Rinzler, p.153-154).

In cooking: To peel shallots, first immerse them in boiling water. Then lift them out with a slotted spoon, and plunge them into cold water. The papery skin should now slip off easily (Rinzler, p.154).

In the garden: In the garden, strong-scented herbs such as onions and garlic appear to act as natural insect repellents, keeping the pests away without being poisonous to people or pets (Rinzler, p.154).

The human use of scents, aromas and fragrances has its origins lost in ancient times. Why and when people started to prepare them will never be known. However, archeological findings, early written texts and oral tradition, show that the history of aromas goes deep back in time. Early civilizations offered scent flowers, herbs and resins in worship of their Gods. When burned, some plants released stronger aromas and scented smoke fires became part of religious rituals, a mystical mean of communication between the heaven and earth, a tradition followed by many religions until the present days. (Herb and aroma).

The Assyrian and the Egyptians, who started their civilizations in the fourth millennium B.C., knew how to use medicinal plants to make remedies as well as scented oils, unguents and balms. The demand for the raw materials needed in fragrances and remedies led to the discovery of new methods of extracting scents. A large number of new techniques were mastered and craftsman developed processes like pressing, decoction, pulverization and maceration, and made the initial attempts to produce essential oils by distillation. (Herbs and aromas).

Alexandria became the most important trade center of the region, receiving goods from the Eastern trade, processing Arabian drugs and Indian perfumes. The raw materials arrived from Arabia, Persia, India and China. The use of perfumes spread to Greece where they started to be used not only in religious practices but also for personal purposes, a fundamental change in the direction of the modern employment of perfumes and cosmetics and their present industrial production. Following the trend, the Romans used fragrances lavishly. Their manuscripts describe and illustrate herbs brought from all over the world. (Herbs and aromas).

A decline in the use of aromas for personal purposes occurred with the fall of the Roman Empire and during the Middle Ages in Europe, when perfume was again only used in church rituals and for cover the stench of disease. Fortunately exotic flowers, herbs and spices became once again available in Europe when trade to the Orient was reestablished in the beginning of the 13th century A.C.. From the Arabs came the knowledge of alchemy and distillation of essential oils. Venice became the center of the perfume trade and soon perfumery spread to other European countries. The perfume trade developed rapidly as the Crusaders reintroduced the personal use of perfume upon their return to Europe. (Herbs and aromas).

It is interesting to note that until then, i.e. for more than 4000 years, the raw materials employed in the manufacturing of aromas, perfumes, remedies and cosmetics came exclusively from natural vegetal or animal sources. It was only in the late 18th century A.C. that the first synthetic fragrance material was produced. This was the beginning of the modern age of perfumery. With the event of synthetics, perfumery would no longer be exclusively used by the wealthy. (Herbs and aromas).

Originally, the perfumes were derived from natural sources: flowers, fruits, leaves, roots, resins, and occasionally animal secretions. Unless the substance was to be used directly, as in the case of an oleoresin that was to be burned, the trick of the perfumer was to extract fragrant substances from plants or animals and present them in a usable form (Simpson, Conner, p.215). The most successful extraction procedures are those that destroy or alter the natural fragrances as little as possible. Extraction methods must use substances in which volatile oils dissolve. In the manufacture of perfume, substances known as fixatives can also be added to help retard rapid dissipation of the volatile compounds (Simpson, Conner, p.215).
The basic ingredients that are used in the perfume trade are known as odorants. Odorants fall into five groups: concretes, absolutes, distilled and fractional distilled essential oils, resinoids, and tinctures, including those of animal derived substances. These classes of odorants are based on the way in which the oils are extracted and the substances from which the oils are obtained (Simpson, Conner, p.215).

Concretes, the purest of the natural odorants, are obtained by immersing fragrant plant products in a hydrocarbon solvent that penetrates the tissues and dissolves out the oils and other lipid compounds.

Absolute, is when a concrete is extracted to a more concentrated state (because waxes and glycerides are left behind) with alcohol and the alcohol is then evaporated. Most perfumes consist of mixtures of absolutes.

Resinoids, are obtained in the same manner as concretes, but instead of flowers, leaves, bark, or seed tissues, solid or semisolid plant secretions such as resin are dissolved in organic solvents. The solvent is then evaporated from the oils under reduced pressure.

Distillation and fractional distillation, are the most common methods employed today for the extraction of natural fragrances. Both involve exposing plant parts to steam, often superheated steam. The volatile oils are carried off in the steam. Because volatile oils are insoluble in water, they float on the surface of the water produced by the cooled steam. The layer of oil is easily skimmed from the top of the water column. Fractional distillation takes advantage of the fact that different volatile oils vary in their solubilities in steam. The most soluble are carried away first, and the less soluble later. When different fractions of the steam are condensed, the fragrant compounds can be separated from one another and collected individually. Distillation has an advantage over the extraction methods because it is inexpensive and rapid (Simpson, Conner, p.216).

Tinctures, have been used since ancient times and are still employed to extract medicinal compounds as well as fragrant oils. They are produced by extracting oils from a macerated substance in 95 percent ethanol (the ancient Egyptians used wine). Tinctures may seem very similar to absolutes, but absolutes are obtained by direct extraction of plant or animal material with alcohol (Simpson, Conner, p.216).

Early in the profession of perfumery it was discovered that the blending of scents could provide new, sometimes superior fragrances. In fact, all natural "perfumes" are mixtures of odoriferous compounds. In some cases, one scent dominates, but all are needed to provide a complexity of odor. In other cases, there is a main fragrance but the other compounds present are of major importance in producing the particular fragrance (Simpson, Conner, p.217).Finally, in some instances all the odoriferous compounds are of equal importance in determine the final sensory effect of the mixture. Perfumers try to mimic complex natural fragrances or "invent" new ones by mixing absolutes and tinctures with fixatives to retard diffusion into the air and balance the different scents (Simpson, Conner, p.217). The creation of a perfume is thus an art that requires the careful blending of different fixatives and odorants. Today, perfume houses employ a mater perfumer whose job is to use notes, different scents, to make a masterpiece (Simpson, Conner, p.217).

Jasmine Family
Orange Family
Narcissus Family
Rose Family
Violet Family
Mimosa Family

Common Spices, Their Scientific Names, and the Plant Part Used
Spice	Scientific Name	Part Used
Allspice	Pimenta dioica	Fruit
Black Pepper	Piper nigrum	Fruit
Capsicum Peppers	Capsicum annuum, Capsicum baccatum, Capsicum chinense, Capsicum frutescens, Capsicum pubescens	Fruit
Cassia	Cinnamomum cassia	Bark
Cinnamon	Cinnamomum zeylanicum	Inner Bark
Cloves	Eugenia caryophyllata	Flower
Ginger	Zingiber officinale	Rhizome
Mace	Myristica fragrans	Aril
Nutmeg	Myristica fragrans	Seed
Saffron	Corcus sativus	Stigma
Turmeric	Curcuma longa	Rhizome
Vanilla	Vanilla planifolia	Fruit

Scoville Ratings for a Variety of Capsicum Peppers
Peppers	Scoville Heat Units
Aji	30,000-50,000
Banana (sweet)	<1
Bell	<1
Cayenne	30,000-50,000
Cherry	100-500
Chiltepin	50,000-100,000
Habanero	100,000-300,000
Jalapeno	2,500-5,000
Jamaican hot	100,000-200,000
Pimento	<1
Scotch bonnet	100,000-250,000
Tabasco	30,000-50,000
Thai	70,000-80,000

Common Herbs, Their Scientific Names, and the Plant Part Used
Herb	Scientific Name	Part Used
Anise	Pimpinella anisum	Fruit
Basil	Ocimum basillicum	Leaves
Bay Leaves	Laurus nobilis	Leaves
Caraway	Carum carvi	Fruit
Cardamom	Elettaria cardamomum	Seed
Celantro	Coriandrum sativum	Leaves
Celery	Apium graveolens	Fruit
Chervil	Anthriscus cereifolium	Leaves
Chives	Allium schoenoprasum	Leaves
Coriander	Coriandrum sativum	Fruit
Cumin	Cuminum cyminum	Fruit
Dill	Anethum graveolens	Fruit, leaves
Fennel	Foeniculum vulgare	Fruit
Fenugreek	Trigonella foenumgraecum	Seed
Garlic	Allium sativum	Bulbets
Horseradish	Armoracia rusticana	Root
Leek	Allium porrum	Leaves
Marjoram	Origanum majorana	Leaves
Mustard	Brassica alba; Brassica nigra	Seed
Onion	Allium cepa	Bulb
Oregano	Origanum vulgare	Leaves
Parsley	Petroselinum crispum	Leaves
Peppermint	Mentha piperita	Leaves
Rosemary	Rosmarinus officinalis	Leaves
Sage	Salvia officinalis	Leaves
Savory	Satureja hortensis	Leaves
Shallot	Allium ascalonicum	Bulb
Spearmint	Mentha spicata	Leaves
Star anise	Illicium verum	Seed
Tarragon	Artemesia dracunculus	Leaves
Thyme	Thymus vulgaris	Leaves

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Allium sativum
Native to:	Central Asia, Souther Europe
Parts used as herb:	Bulbs
Medicinal properties:	Antimicrobial, carminative

	Spices are aromatic fruits, flowers, bark, or other plant parts of tropical origin.
Herbs are generally aromatic leaves, or sometimes seeds, from plants of temperate origin

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Vanilla planifolia, Vanilla tahitunsis
Native to:	Mexico, East Indies
Parts used as spice:	Unripe fruits ("beans")

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Pimenta dioica, Pimenta officinalis
Also known as:	Clove pepper, Jamaica pepper, pimento
Native to:	West Indies, Latin America
Parts used as spice:	Fruit
Medicinal properties:	Antiseptic

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Syzygium aromaticum
Native to:	The East Indies (Indonesia)
Parts used as spice:	Flower bud
Medicinal properties:	Dental analgesic
Other uses:	Pharmaceutical and cosmetic flavor, perfume

Nutmeg	and		Mace
About This Plant		About This Plant
Botanical name:	Myristica fragrans	Botanical name:	Myristica fragrans
		Also known as:	Myristica
Native to:	Indonesia	Native to:	Indonesia
Parts used as spice:	Seed covering	Parts used as spice:	Seed kernel
Medicinal properties:	Hallucinogen	Medicinal properties:	Hallucinogen
Other uses:	Flavoring for tobacco	Other uses:	Flavoring for tobacco and toothpaste

About This Plant
Botanical name:	Brassica nigra (black mustard), Brassica juncea (brown mustard)
Native to:	Europe
Parts used as herb:	Flowers, leaves, seeds
Medicinal properties:	Counterirritant, emetic