Introduction to Bacteria

What is bacteria?

Microsoft Encarta describes bacteria as “microorganisms that lack a nucleus and have a cell wall composed of peptidoglycan, a protein-sugar molecule. Bacteria are the most common organisms on earth and are intimately connected to the lives of all organisms.”

Did You know, we couldn't live without bacteria! A bacterial expert at the University of Illinois says, “They protect us and feed us…All life on Earth depends on their activities.” Bacteria has a been given a bad reputation because they do cause medical conditions such as gum disease and strep throat, it also includes the killers such as anthrax and cholera.

Although there are literally thousands of bacteria species that inhabit the earth, only a minute percentage actually cause diseases in humans. The processes of sterilization and pasteurization use heat to kill these bacteria and thus preventing bacterial infections. However, if a form of bacterial infection should occur, it may be treated with different forms of antibiotics. Unfortunately, the usage of certain antibiotics have grown so immensely that specific bacteria strains have evolved to resist these antibiotics. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which causes tuberculosis, is just one of the bacterial stains that have changed to survive certain antibiotics (Bacteria).

History of Bacteria

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek

Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch microscope maker from the late 17th century was the first person to immaculately study bacteria. Being the first to discover and describe a variety of minute organisms, Leeuwenhoek was considered the founder of microbiology. To be able to view these minute organisms Leeuwenhoek spent hundreds of hours making the finest ground glass for his simple microscopes. Leeuwenhoek's studies helped pave the way for other researches such as Louis Pasteur. Pasteur, a French biologist, disproved what most scientists of his day believed: that microbes do not arise from nonliving matter. Another scientist, Robert Koch from Germany, showed bacteria could cause disease.

In the late 19th century, Sergei Winogradsky, a soil scientist from Russia, was considered to be the founder of microbial ecology. He described that in bacteria there were energy-yielding metabolic reactions that were very important. A Dutch scientist by the name of Martinus Beijerinck, also from the late 19th century discovered that micro-organisms play a large important role in the cycling of nutrients. Another important scientist, Selman Waksman, an American microbiologist from the 1940s, discovered that antibiotics were produced by a large number of soil bacterias. Waksman, through his discovery, helped to pave the way for development of antibiotics. This was very important because many diseases that once were crippling or fatal could now controlled or even cured because of these antibiotics.

Louis Pasteur

The studies of early 20th century scientists, Konstantin S. Mereschkovsky and B. M. Kozo-Polyansky: Russian biologists, and Ivan Wallin: an American biologist, were resurrected by an American microbiologist: Lhyn Margulis in the early 1960s. These studies demonstrated the prokaryotic nature of eukaryotes such as plants and animals. Endosymbiosis, "the idea that key eukaryotic features such as the energy-generating centers called mitochondria in all animals, plants, and fungi and the photosynthesizing centers called chloroplasts in all algae and plants were derived from ancient bacteria (Bacteria)" a hypothesis that resulted of Margulis's studies.

Studies of bacteria led to the revolutionary view, put forward in the 1970s by American biologist Carl Woese, that the separation of organisms into prokaryotes and eukaryotes does not represent the fundamental distinction between all organisms. Woese suggested that the archaebacteria, which resemble both prokaryotes and eukaryotes, represent one ancestral lineage, bacteria another, and eukaryotes a third, and proposed that each be placed in their own domain.

Common Types of Bacteria

Functions of Bacteria

Bacteria are well know for their roles as decomposers and also rearrangers of materials. "They are essential participants in the biological cycles of the elements, and they are the effectors of large-scale chemical changes which result in alterations of the environment (Doetsch and Cook 9) ." Bacteria are capable of breaking down a large variety of substances, many of which no other organism can break down. Amazingly bacteria can break down "nearly all naturally occurring and many synthetic compounds, including formaldehyde, phenol, thanol, benzene, naphthalene, kerosene, paraffin, methane, testosterone, nicotine, chitin, rubber, and various herbicides and inseticides (Doetsch and Cook 9)."

Toxic materials such, as acids, alcohols or other solvents, and antibiotics are produced by bacteria as a result of their metabolism. These materials may inhibit growth of other organisms or they may be stimulatory factors, such as vitamins, amino acids, nucleotides, which help to promote the grown of ogranisims (Doetsch and Cook 10). Due to their rapid rate of growth and metabolism, they can draw large ammounts of available nutrients from the environment which will inhibit the development of other organisms. Bacteria also helps with the availability of nutrients in the environment by the "removal of organic material from the environment by converting it to carbon dioxide and other inorganic compounds (Doetsch and Cook 10)." This is called Mineralization. This process can be found as a primary object in sewage treatment processes, because it is wanted to "remove organic matter which would permit growth of undesirable organisms in rivers, thereby depleting the oxygen supply for fish and aquatic life (Doetsch and Cook 11)."

Dangerous Types Bacteria:

The Pneumonic Plague:

Yersinia pestis, causes the disease Plague. This disease can be found in rodents such as chipmunks, prairie dogs, ground squirrels, mice. The fleas on these animals transmit the bacteria to humans during the feeding process. Yersinia pestis is contained in the rodents blood streams.

The CDC describes to us that patients with the pneumonic plague will have a "fever, weakness, and rapidly developing pneumonia with shortness of breath, chest pain, cough, and sometimes bloody or watery sputum. Nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain may also occur. "

When the lungs are infected by Yersinia pestis you get the pneumonic plague. You contract the pneumonic plague through the air, it can be transmitted in respiratory droplets from a person who is coughing or sneezing. To be infected this way you must be rather close to someone who is already infected, within a 6 foot range. Pneumonic plague is different then the Bubonic plauge. A flea infected with the bubonic plague can bite you and expose you to the bubonic plague through the wound.

"Male Xenopsylla cheopis (oriental rat flea) engorged with blood. This flea is the primary vector of plague in most large plague epidemics in Asia, Africa, and South America. Both male and female fleas can transmit the infection (Plague)."

Every year there are reports of 1,000 to 3,000 cases by the World Health Organization. Roughly one in seven, or 14% of all the plague cases reported in the United States are fatal. On average, each year in the western United States there are 10 to 15 cases. If exposed to the pneumonic plague, it will take between one to six days to become ill. The bacterium, yersinia pestis, will survive no longer than one hour. Yersinia pestis is "easily destroyed by sunlight and drying. (Frequently)."

The picture to the right displays cases of the plague reported by humans between 1970 - 1997. The CDC reports that "the plague is most common in the southwestern states, particularly New Mexico and Arizona s well as Southern Colorado(Questions)." In other countries such as Africa, Asia and South America the plague exists in. Areas most common to outbreaks of the plague are where "housing and sanitation conditions are poor (Questions)."

Other forms of the plauge are:

The Bubonic Plague:

This is the most common type of plague. It is caused by the same bacteria, Yersinia Pestis. An infected flea that bites a person or other objects that might contain this bacteria breaks the skin. The CDC tells us "Patients will develop swollen, tender lymph glands (called buboes) and fever, headache, chills, and weakness. Bubonic plague does not spread from person to person (Facts)."

Septicemic Plague:

This form of the plague occurs "when plague bacteria multiply in the blood. It can be a complication of pneumonic or bubonic plague or it can occur by itself. When it occurs alone, it is caused in the same ways as bubonic plauge; however, buboes do not develop. Patients have fever, chills, prostration, abdominal pain, shock, and bleeding into skin and other organs. Septicemic plague does not spread from person to person (Facts)."

Botulism:

"Botulism is a muscle-paralyzing disease caused by a toxin made by a bacterium called Clostridium botulinum. (Botulism Factsheet)."

The CDC describes three main types of botulism:

Foodborne Botulism:

This occurs when someone ingests pre-formed toxin. Once this occurs, with in a few hours to days illness will set in.

Infant Botulism:

This occurs "in a small number of susceptible infants each year who harbor Clostridium Botulinum in their intestinal tract (Botulism Factsheet)."

Wound Botulism:

Occurs when Clostridium botulinum infects a wound and secretes the toxin.

;Sypmtoms of foodborne botulism include, double vision, blurred vision, drooping eyelids, slurred speech, difficulty swallowing, dry mouth, muscle weakness. The muscle weakness will start to affect the shoulders first, it will then move down through the upper arms, lower arms, thighs, and calves. Paralysis of breathing muscles can also occur, this could cause death. Botulism can not be spread from person to person.

The bacteria Clostridium botulinum is commonly found in soil. It grows best in low oxygen conditions. "The bacteria form spores which allow them to survive in a dormant state until exposed to conditions that can support their growth (Botulism)." Each year there are on average of 110 cases of botulism reported in the United States. Of these cases, 25% are foodborne, 72% are infant botulism and the remaining cases are wound botulism.

Anthrax:

Anthrax, contagious disease of warm-blooded animals, including humans, caused by the bacterium Bacillus anthracis. One of the oldest known diseases, it was once epidemic and still appears in many world areas, but only sporadically in the western and southern United States. It was the first disease for which the causative organism was isolated, by C. J. Davaine in 1863, for which a pure culture was obtained, by Robert Koch in 1876, and for which an effective vaccine was developed, by Louis Pasteur in 1881. Animals acquire the disease from drinking water draining from contaminated soil, in which the infectious bacteria may live for years; from eating infected carcasses and feedstuffs; and from the bites of bloodsucking insects. The disease, sometimes manifested by staggering, bloody discharge, convulsions, and suffocation, may be fatal almost immediately in acute cases and within three to five days in subacute cases. Death is caused by toxemia.

The spore-forming bacterium Bacillus anthracis causes the infectious disease Anthrax.

It is commonly found in cattle, sheep, goats, camels and antelopes, as well as other herbivores. It can also be found in humans, after they are exposed to animals or tissue from a contaiminated animal. Anthrax, most commonly found in agricultural regions such as South and Central America, Southern and Eastern Europe, Asia, Africa, the Caribbean, and the Middle East. Humans are affected usually because of an occupational exposure.

You can be exposed to Anthrax three different ways:

Cutaneous (skin) Inhalation Gastrointestinal

Symptoms:

Cutaneous:

Inhalation:

Intestinal:

Cholera:

The CDC describes cholera as "an acute, diarrheal illness caused by infection of the intestine with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae (Cholera)." Cholera can be characterized by "profuse watery diarrhea, vomiting, and leg cramps (Cholera)." When this occurs there will be rapid loss of body fluids which will result in dehydration and shock. Death can occur if there is no treatment within a few hours.

One may get infected with cholera by drinking or eating food that is contaminated with the cholera bacteriam. In areas that have inadequate treatment for sewage and drinking water, this disease can spread rapidly. One is not risk of contracting cholera via casual contact with an infected person. Other sources of the disease "may also live in the environment in brackish rivers and coastal waters." You may also be contaminated if you eat raw shellfish and some occurances have resulted from eating raw or undercooked shellfish aquired from the Gulf of Mexico. In the 1800s cholera was common in the United States. Because of modern sewage and water treatment systems cholera has been virtually eliminated. Travelers can be faced with cholera if they travel to parts of Latin America, Africa or even Asia where there may be an epidemic of cholera that is occuring. One might also be infected if travelers happen to bring contaminated seafood back to the United States. When travelers bring contaminated seafood back with them, it sometimes causes foodborne outbreaks of cholera.

The simple precautions recomended by the Center for Disease Control are(Cholera):

• Drink only water that you have boiled or treated with chlorine or iodine. Other safe beverages include tea and coffee made with boiled
• water and carbonated, bottled beverages with no ice.
• Eat only foods that have been thoroughly cooked and are still hot, or fruit that you have peeled yourself.
• Avoid undercooked or raw fish or shellfish, including ceviche.
• Make sure all vegetables are cookedavoid salads.
• Avoid foods and beverages from street vendors.
• Do not bring perishable seafood back to the United States.
• A simple rule of thumb is "Boil it, cook it, peel it, or forget it. "

Immediate replacement of the fluid and salts lost through diarrhea, will help to treat cholera. A mixture of sugar and salts that are mixed into water and drunk in large quantities is an oral rehydration solution. This solution is used to treat diarrhea throughout the world. Intravenous fluid replacement is used when there is a severe case that needs treatment.

Patients can be treated with oral rehydration solution, a prepackaged mixture of sugar and salts to be mixed with water and drunk in large amounts. This solution is used throughout the world to treat diarrhea. Severe cases also require intravenous fluid replacement. With prompt rehydration, fewer than 1% of cholera patients die.

Antibiotics shorten the course and diminish the severity of the illness, but they are not as important as rehydration. Persons who develop severe diarrhea and vomiting in countries where cholera occurs should seek medical attention promptly

Bacteria as Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD):

The chemical properties of various bacteria and fungi make for possible biological warfare agents. Since bacteria and fungi both have some deadly properties and can reproduce easily they provide a "unique potential to make an environment more dangerous over time" ("Chemical"). If such substances were to be used for hostile purposes, any bacteria or fungi with disease-causing microorganisms could be considered a weapon. "For the purposes of warfare, specific characteristics of certain agents make them more likely to be used than others" ("Chemical").

Some of these bacterial and fungal substances can make victims very sick without necessarily inducing death. Some examples of probable warfare agents include the microorganisms that cause tularemia, Q fever, and yellow fever. These illnesses do cause sufferers to be debilitated; recovery does occur often, but not is all cases. Other agents are more likely to be lethal. The bacteria that cause bubonic plague and the virus that causes smallpox can kill large numbers of untreated people. Early antibiotic treatment usually cures plague victims, and smallpox vaccinations before exposure to the virus can prevent the disease.

Delivery Systems

Since it is proven that types of chemical and biological agents are most effective when dispersed by air, these agents are often designed to fit into bombs or artillery shells which explode into the air and then spread their contents over a large enemy territory. The US first used this technique in the 1980’s with binary chemical weapons. Accidental leakage was a common fear with any form of chemical or biological weapon. To avoid such dangerous circumstances binary weapons were designed to include two relatively harmless chemicals that could only be activated after firing the weapon. In contrast, there are some biological substances, such as anthrax spores, that can be activated without explosive techniques. The US army has found that biological agents can actually be released through a large variety of explosive and non- explosive methods.

During the 1950s and 1960s the United States Army ran an experimental test using some less harmful biological chemicals. Chemical particles were dispersed throughout the countries most populated sectors from a variety of sources. “Agents were sprayed at San Francisco from a boat offshore, dispensed from slow-moving cars in Minneapolis and St. Louis, and released from light bulbs dropped in the New York subway” (“Chemical”). Although the bacterial chemicals used in these tests did pose some risk to the health of those exposed, the Army ran a successful test to demonstrate that “an enemy or terrorist could expose millions of people to disease-causing organisms by a variety of simple techniques” (“Chemical”).

Anthrax as WMD

The anthrax bacteria is likely to be popular among terrorist groups because of its unique, shell-like, spore form. “In a warm, moist environment like the human lung, the spores can become active and highly lethal. Anthrax bacteria are usually found under the soil surface, and cause disease primarily in cattle and other grazing livestock. But if released into the air and inhaled, a few thousand spores can be fatal” (“Chemical”). Airborne anthrax, is a swift and vigorous pathogen. For those who are exposed, treatment must begin within hours of the first cases being diagnosed. "Without antibiotic intervention, 90% of people exposed to the inhalation form of anthrax will die" ("Is U.S."). Anthrax is a likely weapon in a bioterrorist attack because it is durable, lethal and available. "It can survive an explosion which makes it ideal for weaponization" (qtd. in "Is U.S.").

The most commonly used form of anthrax as a biological weapon is known as “battlefield anthrax.” With this particular string, an exposed person must be vaccinated or receive antibiotics within twelve hours in order to prevent fatal effects.

The most malicious outbreak of anthrax occurred in 1979 in a plant in Sverdlovsk, Russia (present-day Yekaterinburg). In this incident the bacterial anthrax spores was accidentally released into the air killing 66 citizens. In 1998, American scientists at Los Alamos National Laboratory used advanced technological tests to determine the exact string of anthrax that had been released in Russia. Results of this examination showed that the anthrax released in 1979 was actually composed of four different strains of the bacteria. “This raised concerns that Russia, and possibly other countries, may be working on a vaccine-resistant form of anthrax for use as a biological weapon. The United States government had previously planned to vaccinate all American personnel against anthrax; however, the possibility of genetically engineered new forms of the disease currently has scientists divided as to the effectiveness of such a vaccine” (“Anthrax”).

A scenario presented by:Lawrence Wein (of th Graduate School of Busines, Standford University), David L. Craft (a doctoral student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's Operation Research Center), and Edward H. Kaplan (professor of management sciences at Yale University's School of Management came up with this scenario:

They "analyzed a variety of possible responses to a scenario whereby two pounds of anthrax are dropped in a city of 11,000,000 people (the approximate size of New York) and 1,500,000 are infected. Based on more than 30 years of data, including a 1993 report from the now defunct Congressional Office of Technology Assessment, they propose the following as a reasonable scenario:

In their base case, every individual in each neighborhood in which one person shows symptoms and is promptly diagnosed must take antibiotics to survive. However, approximately 123,000 people in targeted city would die within four days despite distribution of the drugs.

The reason: If people don't get antibiotics quickly to keep the infection item developing, too many will become symptomatic and will overwhelm hospitals and medical facilites. Most will succumb before they get medical aid. Five of the 11 inhalation anthrax patients in the 2001 attacks through the U.S. Postal Service died despite being given aggressive treatment by teams of doctors far larger than would be available in a more widespread attack" (qtd. in Is U.S.).

Bo Tox (Botulinum Toxin):

Bo-Tox has gained a lot of recent popularity, but how many of its users actually know that the chemical is a form of bacteria. Bo-Tox, or Botulinum Toxin, is actually a bacterial by-product of the same bacteria which causes the botulism disease. Bo-Tox is most often used as a cosmetic agent, and the substance works by blocking activity in skeletal muscles. A complete paralysis can occur with large doses of this bacteria form. When used medically, Bo-Tox is most often administered in small and well-regulated doses. Bo-Tox first began to be used in 1980. It's use was to treat muscle disorders such as lazy eye, uncontrolled blinking, and eye tics. Dermatological surgeons created cosmetic tretaments using Bo-Tox in 1987 (Botox).

As a non-sergical from of plastic surgery, Bo-Tox is used to treat spasms of facial, neck and laryngeal muscles. Cosmetic surgeons have began the popular trend of using Bo-Tox to un-do signs of aging such as frown lines and the "crow’s feet" or squint lines that appear at the outer corners of our eyes with aging. At about $400 a Botox treatment, you would think the effect would last for a long period of time. But the normal strengh of the muscle will return in about four months requiring a new injection to help maintain the effect (Gordon).

Today, Bo-tox is most popularly known as a cure-all for wrinkles, however, there may be a new application for laryngectomy patients. "As you know, tracheo-esophageal puncture (TEP) with insertion of a speech prosthesis has become a mainstay for voice rehabilitation after laryngectomy. Occasionally patients are unable to produce sound when the TEP is placed. One of the causes of lack of phonation in this situation is spasm of the pharyngeal muscles (cricopharyngeus spasm). The traditional method of dealing with this problem has been a surgical procedure called myotomy" (Carroll). Thus, physicians have begun to use Bo-Tox injections intramuscularly in order to block the spasm and avoid the need for surgery. Promising results have arrised from early trials by Health professionals from the University of Iowa.

There are risks from the use of Bo-Tox, even when it is administered by skilled clinicians, "those risks are multiplied in the hands of physicians who are untrained in the intricacies of facial anatomy" (Gordon). Droopy eyelids, raised brows, to a loss of facial expressions are just some risks that result in the use of Bo-Tox. "Repeated Botox treatments can result in a thinning of the muscles which can produce longer-lasting results. However, there have been concerns about the possible long-term consequences of storing toxins in the body" (Botox). Listed side effects of Bo-Tox are local numbness, swelling, bruising or a burning sensation at the injection site. Bruising and swelling may also be present for several days. New studies show that Bo-Tox may be useful in treating migraine headaches. Other studies indicate that Botulin Toxin is safe and effective for treating hyperhydrosis (excessive sweating). Bo-Tox hinhibits the release "of a neurotransmitter the chemical cuased 50% reduction in underarm sweating" (Quigley).

Greater numbers of the population are flocking toward Bo-Tox to get rid of unwanted facial lines, yet most do not realize that his Botulinum toxin can be lethal even in tiny doses. Having such a deadly risk, Bo-Tox can be regarded as a biological weapon. The Bo-Tox toxin though is not itself a living agent. Bo-Tox is actually a by-product of the bacterium Clostridium botulinum. This particularly dangerous in all forms regardless if it is inhaled or ingested in food or drink. Bo-Tox agents can be potent to the extent that "a gallon of botulinum toxin could poison a small city's water system" ("Chemical").

The American Board of Plastic Surgery advises peope interested in Botox injections to (Gordon):

• Check credentials: Your physician should be certified by the ABPS or other appropriate society, and be experienced in facial cosmetic surgery.
• Get evaluated: Before administering any medical treatment, your physician should require an evaluation and full medical history from you.
• Be informed: Your physician should clearly explain all potential benefits and risks. Discuss your intentions with friends and family as well.
• Stay sober: The consumption of alcohol before, during or after a medical procedure can affect a patient's choices--as well as the outcome. Medical decisions should be made outside the influence of alcohol or peer pressure.
• Stay sterile: Botox injections should be performed in a setting with appropriate medical personnel and safety equipment on hand.

Introduction to Fungi

What is Fungi

Encyclopedia Britannica describes fungi as "any of about 50,000 species of organisms of the kingdom Fungi, or Mycota—including yeasts, rusts, smuts, mildews, molds, and mushrooms. They are among the most widely distributed organisms on Earth and are of great importance. Many fungi are free-living in soil or water; others form parasitic or symbiotic relationships with plants or animals, respectively (Fungus)."

Descriptions of each type of Fungi:

• Yeast:

Yes is a single-celled fungi, it is classified as Ascomycetes or Basidiomycetes. Yeast's can be found in soils and on plant surfaces world wide. Flower nectar and fruits also contain yeast. The most commonly used yeast in production is the ascomycetan class (Yeast).

• Rust

Roughly 6,000 species of Rust fungi exist in the world. This type of fungi will attack a wide variety of plants and cause "destructive plant diseases (Levetin and McMahon 405)." These basidiomycetes cause very important diseasin in cereal crops. "These basidiomycetes, have produced serious epidemics throughout history. Coffee, apple, and pine trees, and the economies depending on these crops have also been devastated by rust fingi (Levetin and McMahon 405)." The destruction of coffee plantations in Ceylon (sri Lanka) was caused by rust fungi in the 1870s and 1880s, it still today threatening the production of coffee (Levetin and McMahon 405).

The Rust fungi leaves reddish lesions on plant. And in Ancient Greece these epidemics were recognized. Aristotle and Theophrastus wrote about these. It is also said that the Romans would hold a "religious ceremony, the Robigalia, to propitiate the gods Robigo and Robigus, whom they believed [were] responsible for the rust epidemics." The most important crop in ancient times in the Mediterranean countries was wheat, and the wheat rusts were major threats. Even today, wherever wheat is grown rust fungi remains as a serious pathogen (Levetin and McMahon 407). Puccinia graminis is the most important rust pathogen, and triticii is the fungi responsible for stem rust of wheat (Levetin and McMahon 407).

• Smut

A species of fungi that is a disease to cereals, corn (maize), grasses, onion and sorghum. Smut is formed within blisters inseeds, leaves, stems, flower parts and bulbs (Smut).Significant losses of grain crops are sometimes caused by smut fungi, which are plant pathogens. The difference between Smut and Rusts are that Smut has only one host plant. A common type of smut is a widespread disease, and it occurse wherever corn is grown. This type of smut is called corn smut, it commonly occurs on sweet corn more over than other varieties of corn. The name of the fungus that causes corn smut is Ustilago maydis (Levetin and McMahon 409).

Because of Ustilago maydis any plant that is above ground will form galls. Depending on the size and location of these galls, the degree of crop loss will vary. If galls are on the ears, it will result in total loss, reduction of the yield or stunted growth will be caused if the galls are any other place (Levetine and McMahon 409).

Corn Smut, or "Smoky Maize Mushroom" as it is known on the gourmet market can sell for $50 a pound! It has recently picked up popularity in the United States, "the young galls as a gourment delicacy (Levetine and McMahon 409)." Although this delicacy is new to America's tastes, it has been cultivated for many centuries in Mexico as a popular food item. Presently "farmers in Pennsylvania and several Midwestern states are growing corn smut for the gourmet market (Levetine and McMahon 409)."

• Mildew

Encyclopedia Britannica describes mildew as "a conspicuous mass of threadlike hyphae and fruiting structures produced by various fungi (division Mycota). It is associated with cloth, fibres, leather goods, and plant diseases (downy mildew and powdery mildew. The fungi use these substances as sources of food for growth and reproduction (Mildew)."

• Mold

A fuzzy, cobweblike growth produced on organic matter by several types of fungi Mold and mildew are commonly used interchangeably, although mold is often applied to black, blue, green, and red fungal growths, and mildew to whitish growths (Mold).The green mold P. notatum produces Penicillin. Penicillian was discovered in 1929, the results of it's discovery revolutionized antibiotic drugs. Genetic experiments rely on an important tool, the red bread mold Neurospora. "Molds thrive on a great many organic substances," if enough suffiecient moisture is provided they will "rapidly disintegrate wood, paper and leather (Mold)." Molds aren't nessicarily destructive, molds help in the "fermentation of organic acids and cheeses (Mold)."

Mycotoxins are produced by many species of mold, including molds that are found indoors in contaminated buildings. "Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites. Nearly all are cytotoix, disrupting cellular structures and interfering with vital cellular processes such as protein, RNA, and DNA synthesis" (Ammann).

Here is a list of possible results from exposure to different indoor molds:

• Vacular-system effects: (including vascular fragility and hemorrhaging in tissues or from the lungs) are associated with aflatoxin, satratoxin, and roridins.
• Digestive-system effects: (including diarrhea, vomiting, intestinal hemorrhage, and liver effects such as necrosis and fibrosis) are associated with aflatoxin; caustic effects on mucous membranes are associated with T-2 toxin; and anorexia is associated with vomitoxin.
• Respiratory-system effects:( including respiratory distress and bleeding from the lungs) are associated with trichothecenes.
• Nervous-system effects: (including tremors, incoordination, depression, and headache) are associated with tremorgens and trichothecenes.
• Cutaneous-system effects: (including rash, burning sensaton, sloughing of skin, and photosensitization) are associated with trichothecenes.
• Urinary-system effects: and nephrotoxicity are associated with ochratoxin and citrinin.
• Reproductive-system effects: (including infertility and changes in reproductive cycles) are associated with T-2 toxin and zearalenone.
• Immune-system effects: (including changes or suppression) are associated with many mycotoxins.

• Mushrooms

Dictionary.com describes mushrooms as "Any of various fleshy fungi of the class Basidiomycota, characteristically having an umbrella-shaped cap borne on a stalk, especially any of the edible kinds, as those of the genus Agaricus." Mushrooms are the most eaten fungi, normally "the basidiocarp, or fruiting body, is the part that is eaten. Two popular exceptions to this general rule are the highly prized and costly morels and truffles (Levetine and McMahon 428)." Mushrooms were originally collected from the wild, but because there was a higher need for mushrooms they began to cultivate them. This process eliminates the possibility of mistaking a edible mushroom for a poisonous on. There is no reliable way to "distinguish a toadstool from an edible mushroom (Levetine and McMahon 428)." Mushrooms take nutrients from the ground and their growing medium and because of this they do not rely on the sun and photosynthesis. Mushrooms that are green shows a sign of disease. White, brown, and beige colored mushrooms are the most healthy and popular forms in the United States (Spillman).

A Shiitake Mushroom

For some time we have domesticated and cultivated the Agariscus bisporus, commonly known as the button or field mushroom, and Lentinus edodes, or the Shiitake mushroom. France in 1650 began cultivating the field mushroom, it was the first mushroom in worldwide production. Originally the Shiitake mushroom was cultivated in China and Japan for several hundred years (Levetine and McMahon 429). The Shiitake was recently introduced into the United States. Recently we shiitake has been cultivated on synthetic logs that were created from sawdows and other organic material )(Levetine and McMahon 429), but it was originally cultivated on oak logs. 85% to 92% of the fresh weight of mushrooms are water. Mushrooms are a "source of complete protein and have appreciable amounts of vitamins C, D, and some of the Bs. They are also naturally low in calories and high in fiber (Levetine and McMahon 429)."

Mushrooms are a good source of selenium, potassium, and copper, and some types have significant amounts of three B-complex vitamins, because of this Americans love mushrooms. In the united States the consumption of mushrooms has increased from 3.7 pounds in 1993 to 4.2 pounds in 2000. The U.S. sales of the mushroom crop totaled 851 million pounds in 2001-2002 (Spillman).

Facts about Mushrooms

• One portabella mushroom has more potassium than a banana.
• Mushrooms contain significant amounts of selenium, which plays an important role in the immune system, thyroid system, and the male reproductive system.
• Mushrroms are an excellent source of copper. Copper is needed by the body to produce red blood cells and varios other functions.
• Mushrooms have significant amounts of three B-complex vitamins - riboflavin, niacin, and panthothenic acid. The B vitamins help release energy from the fat, protein, and carbohydrates in food.
• The largest living organism ever found is a honey mushroom, Armillaria ostoyae. It covers 3.4 square miles of land in the Blue Mountains of eastern Oregon, and it's still growing.

Economics of Mushrooms in Pennsylvania:

Pennsylvania also produces some interesting agricultural specialties. Around the towns of Avondale and Kennett Square, in the southeast, many farmers cultivate mushrooms inside sheds where light and temperatures can be controlled. Mushrooms have become an important crop for the state as a whole. They rank second in economic importance behind greenhouse and nursery items. Food processing is now the state's leading industry. Pennsylvania is the nation's leading producer of chocolate and cocoa products and ranks high in the production of ice cream, potato chips, pretzels, sausages, and canned mushrooms.

In 1995, Pennsylvania's mushroom mecca, Chester County, experienced 30 to 100 percent crop losses. This loss was because of a green mold epidemic. No other state grows more mushrooms than farmers in Pennsylvania reports the National Agricultural Statistics Service (Spillman).

Pennslvania leads the industry in mushrooms, they are it's largest cash crop. Pennslvania supplies 45% of the nation's total mushroom production. The total production of the nation is 778 million pounds. California is the second biggest producer of mushrooms at 18%. "Mushroom production has continued to increase at 7% a year since 1970, even though the number of mushroom farmers has decreased from 537 in 1970 to 126 in 1996. Sixty percent of the crop is marketed as fresh mushrooms, with the crop grown and harvested 12 months of the year" (Beyer).

The 350 milliom mushrooms produced per year in Pennsylvania are concentrated in the southeastern part of the state. 240 million pounds are produced in Chester County. About 90 million pounds are produced in Berks County per year. Armstrong County, which lies in the western part of the state, produces the remaining amounts of mushrooms, which is about 20 million pounds.

Functions of Fungi

According to http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/fungi/fungi.html "The Kingdom Fungi includes some of the most important organisms, both in terms of their ecological and economic roles. By breaking down dead organic material, they continue the cycle of nutrients through ecosystems. In addition, most vascular plants could not grow without the symbiotic fungi, or mycorrhizae, that inhabit their roots and supply essential nutrients. Other fungi provide numerous drugs (such as penicillin and other antibiotics), foods like mushrooms, truffles and morels, and the bubbles in bread, champagne, and beer. "

Fungi also cause a number of plant and animal diseases: in humans, ringworm, athlete's foot, and several more serious diseases are caused by fungi. Because fungi are more chemically and genetically similar to animals than other organisms, this makes fungal diseases very difficult to treat. Plant diseases caused by fungi include rusts, smuts, and leaf, root, and stem rots, and may cause severe damage to crops. However, a number of fungi, in particular the yeasts, are important "model organisms" for studying problems in genetics and molecular biology.

• Ringworm:

Ringworm is described as an "infection of the skin, hair, or nails (Ringworm)." The fungi that causes Ringworm belongs to a group called "Dermatophytes." Most often ringworm will infect areas of the body, such as the groin, between the toes, and under the arms (Ringworm). There are different types of ringworm, each effect a different part of the body: Ringworm of the scalp, Ringworm of the body, ringworm of the foot (also known as Athlete's Foot), and ringworm of the nails.

The infected area will be sensitive to the fungus and will tend to be inflamed and itchy, this might result due to a secondary infection by bacteria. You can become infected with ringworm from petting infected dogs or cats. But most commonly ringworm is passed from human to human. This may happen when sharing infected clothes, combs or even towels.

Most commonly children get infected with Ringworm of the scalp. This form of Ringworm is the most contagious form. To treat this form of Ringworm, all the hair on the infected person must be shaved off. Afterwards prescribe oral antifunal medication will be taken. To keep from spreading Ringworm of the scalp to others, children who are infected will often be isolated (Ringworm).

• Truffles

Truffles are defined as any of a group of edible, spherical fungi that grow underground, belong to the family, Tuberaceae. It ranges between 2.5cm to 10cm in diameter (about 1 to 4 inches). Truffles have a knobby exterior that surround a fleshy interior, it can vary in color from white to gray to dark brown (Truffles). "The aroma of fresh truffles is unlike anything else. It is intoxicating, pungent, sexy, penetrating but almost impossible to describe. More than anything, says the eminent Spanish gastronome, Luis Bettonica, it reminds me of the flavour of earth, the humid earth of the woods" (qtd. in Eigeland).

They grow in forests close or on tree roots. Truffles can be found from 8 cm to 30 cm (3 to 12inches) below the surface of the soil. Because they are buried in the ground, truffle collectors usually rely on trained pigs or dogs to locate them by their scent. However the trouble with pigs is that the farmer must be careful that the pig doesn't eat the expensive delicacy ("Foods"). Due to their underground habitat truffles are referred to as "Black Diamonds" (Eigeland). Sheep dogs are easily trained to locate truffles because they do not eat them. Yet another way to locate truffles without "animal help is by spotting the presence of little flies that sometimes buzz around directly above the tuber's (one type of truffle) hiding place, as some species of fly lay eggs in truffles" (Eigeland).

"A fresh truffle has a delicate taste and aroma, and like a mushroom, is low in nutritional value. The largest and best truffles grow in northern Italy and southern France where they support an important industry" (Truffles). On the high end truffle prices can average $900 per pound. However only a single ounce is needed for one serving. Turffle season usually ranges from late October to early February. Truffles were traditionally grown in wooded areas of Italy's Northern Piedmont region (Weingarten). With a good growing season the total world production of truffles can reach 70,000 kilos.

"The truffle also grows in other regions of Europe, the British Isles, and North America, where it was introduced from Europe. One of the best-known and most highly valued species is the black Périgord truffle, named after the region in France where it grows. It is brown-black and covered with many warts. The unique-tasting, black flesh of the Périgord is frequently canned after harvesting. The white, or Piedmont, truffle, native to Italy, is ocher with gray-white flesh. It has a pungent, earthy scent and usually is sliced or grated raw and served in salads, egg dishes, or pasta. The rare summer truffle is found in beech forests. It is brown-black with white flesh that turns yellow when cut (Truffles)."

The history of the truffle goes back some three hundred years, it has only delighted the fortunate few. The ancient Sumerians, Greeks, and Romans know of this culinary treasure. Often before his battles, Pope Gregory IV would eat a meal of truffles, which he believed to help boost his mettle. In the 1700s to honor visiting dignitaries, truffle hunts were organized at the royal court of Turin. It is believed that the precious fungus was kept on the desk of Lord Byron to stimulate the imagination (A Living History).

Truffle growing method:

Truffles can actually be grown off of the roots of oak trees. Starting with accorns, they are germinated and then innoculated "with truffle mycelium so that the roots will be infected with the spores. An oak tree can live for hundreds of years. But on these trees we have cut the main vertical root so that the other roots will spread horizontally - as this is where truffles grow" (Eigeland).

Truffle cooking tip:

"Place a dozen whole eggs and a fresh truffle or two in a container for two days, says Escribano. The flavour and smell of truffle will have penetrated the porous egg shells. Scramble, boil or fry them. You have a delicious, aromatic meal - and the truffles remain intact for repeat performances or other uses" (qtd in Eigeland).