Wool is a popular fabric because of its ability to resist wrinkles and to return to its original shape after being stretched or creased.  It is also able to absorb up to 30 percent of its weight in moisture without feeling damp, making it an excellent insulator against both heat and cold.

Although it is derived mostly from sheep, there are other animals that produce wool that we wear.  Mohair comes from the angora goat.  Angora is from the angora rabbit, and is used to make sweaters and mittens.  A single angora rabbit can produce between 200 to 1500 grams of wool annually.  Camel hair comes from the very fine, soft fur of a camel's undercoat.  It is mostly combined with fine wool to produce certain products.  Cashmere is from the underbelly of the Kasmir goat, a special breed from the Himalayas.  Genuine cashmere is said to be one of the most expensive fibers there is, as one goat produces only 4 ounces of cashmere per year.

Since most wool comes from sheep, this site will concentrate on that type.  Wool is a very important fabric worldwide...about 6.5 billion pounds of raw wool is sheared every year.  Australia leads the countries in wool production, and every U.S. state produces wool. 

There are four major steps in the processing of wool.

1. Shearing:  The process of removing the wool from a sheep.  Using mechanical clippers, experts can clip over 200 sheep per day, and most sheep are sheared two times a year.  The best wool comes from the shoulders and the sides of the animal.  The sheep that wool comes from are classified into five groups, according to their quality of fleece.  The highest quality clothing are produced from the fleece of the fine-wooled sheep.  Young sheep provide the best quality wool.  Wool from sheep that are sheared at 6 to 12 months old is called lambs' wool.  Hog wool comes from sheep 12 to 14 months old.  The lowest-quality wool actually comes from dead animals.  Clippers will actually take wool from sheep slaughtered for their meat, called pulled wool, or from those animals killed by disease or other animals, called dead wool.

2. Sorting and grading:  The fibers are sorted by quality, based on strength, diameter, length, waviness, and color of the fibers.

3. Making yarn

4. Making fabric:  In this step, the yarn is knitted or weaved.  It may also be dyed.  

History of Wool

The first known process of raising sheep for food and clothing dates back 10,000 years ago to central Asia.  Fragments of woolen fabrics have also been found in ancient tombs of Egypt and Babylon.  However, wool was not spun into yarn until about 4000 B.C.

The first wool factory was established by the Romans in Winchester, England in 50 A.D.

In the American colonies, people began raising sheep in Jamestown.  However, England passed laws forbidding the growth of the wool industry in the colonies, attempting to force the colonies to rely on heavily-taxed wool produced in England.  However, the colonists smuggled sheep in from Spain, and by the 1700s, wool production became an important industry in the colonies.  The first water-powered wool factory in America was established in Hartford, Connecticut in 1778.

Humans have used animals for fur since prehistoric times.  An animal's fur consists of the guard hair (a stiff, oily layer on top that repels moisture), and the underfur (a thick layer beneath that acts as an insulator.)  The dried skin and fur of an animal is called the pelt.

The fur industry has been declining over the past decades.  Ten years ago, 25 million pelts of animals trapped in the wild were traded between the United States, Canada, and Russia, the top three sources of wild pelts.  Since then, annual trade in the United States has dropped from 12 million to four million, and in Canada from four million to 951,876.  And even ten years ago, the sales of fur coats in the United States dropped $8 million in a five-year time span; from $1.8 billion in 1987 to $1 billion in 1992.

This chart, from Fur Commission USA, shows the division of world mink production in 2002.  As you can see, Denmark currently produces a substantial larger amount of mink furs than all the other countries.

Fur Farms:

Eighty-five percent of the world's furs come from animals raised on farms.  The most popular farm-raised primarily for their furs are the mink and the fox.  Various other animals are also farmed for their fur, including rabbits, lynxes, chinchillas, and even hamsters.  These animals are raised in pens for their entire lives, and are killed when they become mature.  Northern Europe houses 64 percent of these farms, and North America is home to 11 percent.  The rest are scattered throughout the world.

Since the mink is the most common animal farmed for its fur, I will concentrate on that particular breed.  According to Fur Commission USA, most young mink die within their first year in the wild, due to predators or other natural causes.  On a fur farm, nearly all mink survive the first year, until they are harvested for their pelts.  Litters of mink are usually born in May, with an average litter containing four or five babies, called "kits."  The animals are harvested later in the year after they produce their winter fur.

Animals on fur farms play an important, indirect role in our food chain.  Almost 2 million pounds of expired cheeses and 1 million pounds of damaged eggs are consumed by mink on a single large farm in Wisconsin.   If it were not for these "garbage" by-products being consumed by farmed animals, they would go directly to our landfills, causing a significant increase in pollution.  Since fur farmers invest in these products that would otherwise be discarded, agricultural farmers make significant amounts in revenue; therefore lowering prices for consumers of their products.  (www.furcommission.com)

Other parts of ranch-raised animals are used by humans in addition to their fur.  The mink's subcutaneous fat layer is produced into an oil used to condition leather, and to use in hypoallergenic cosmetics.  Some animal carcasses may even be decomposed into raw materials for things such as makeup, tires, paints and fertilizers.

Fur Traps:

Nearly 10 million animals annually are trapped worldwide for their furs.

There are three main types of traps used to capture fur-bearing animals in the wild:

1.  The leghold trap: 

       The most commonly-used and preferred method of trapping fur-bearing animals.  A spring-powered device, the trap is activated when an animal steps on the trigger, causing the metal jaws to clamp shut on its leg.  There are over 50 varieties of leghold traps available, with different styles intended to trap different kinds of animals.  Its purpose is to hold the animal captive by its limb, until the trapper is able to return to perform the kill.  The trapper will then kill the animal either by beating its skull in with a blunt object, or shooting it.  This type of trap has been banned in 88 countries, however is still legal in all but eight states in America.   While most leghold traps are set on land during the winter months to catch animals such as foxes, minks, beavers, raccoons, squirrels, opossums, and lynxes, there are also leghold traps that are set under water.  Called "drowning sets," these types of traps are intended to catch semi-aquatic animals such as muskrats, minks, and beavers.  The trap is much like a land leghold trap, except it is set underwater with a weight attached to it.  Once the animal is secured in the trap, the trap will sink, inevitably drowning the animal.

2.  "Quick-kill" traps:  

       While there are several varieties of this type of trap, the name of the category states its intention quite well.  These traps are designed to kill the animal as soon as it becomes trapped inside.  When an animal triggers the trap, two metal sheets come crashing together, crushing the animal's skull or spinal column.  The most popular quick-kill trap is the Conibear trap, which is also referred to as the "body gripper.

3.  Cage traps: 

     Considered by animal-rights activists as the most humane way to trap fur-bearing animals, the cage trap causes little or no injury to its occupant.  Lured by bait, an animal will walk into the cage, triggering a door to close behind it.  Professional trappers argue that this method is more expensive than the other two, and that many animals are reluctant to enter the cage.

Skinning Methods

Once the animal has been killed, in whatever manner, it is ready to be skinned.  In the cased method, which is used for smaller animals, the trapper or rancher slits the skin across the back between the legs and peels the pelt off inside out.  In the open method, the skin is slit up the animal's underside, and then the pelt is peeled off.  The pelt is then scraped of any remaining residue, and is ready to be dried.

Leather is a tough, flexible material made from the skin of animals.  It is used to make jackets, shoes, boots, belts, purses, pants, and various other types of clothing and accessories.  Mostly derived from cows, leather products also come from pigs, sheep, deer and goats.  More expensive specialty leather comes from alligators, snakes, and even sharks.

How leather is made

The process in which raw animal hides are chemically treated for human use is called tanning.

Preparation for tanning:

1. Flaying:  The process of skinning the hide from the animal.
2. Curing:  The first step in producing leather.  Salt is produced to the underside of the skin to prevent rotting.  The hide can also be dried in this step.  This procedure is often done right at the place the animal is killed, because it needs to be done immediately after it is skinned from the animal.  The most common method is brine-curing, in which the hides are soaked in salt and disinfectant, then removed a few hours later.  They are then soaked in water for a few hours to remove any additional salt and animal debris.
3. Fleshing:  Any additional flesh remaining on the hide is removed in this step.  The hide is run over a machine encompassing many knives which perform this task.
4. Unhairing:  The hair roots on the hide are weakened by being soaked in a vat full of water and lime.  After the hair is loose enough, it is easily pulled from the hide.  Any hairs still remaining after this step are removed by hand, in a process called "scudding."
5. Deliming:  Any remaining lime that was previously applied to the leather is removed by soaking the hide in a vat of acid.

Tanning Processes

1. Vegetable tanning:  The process of vegetable tanning takes over a month to complete. During the process, the hides are strung and exposed to tannin, which in the U.S. comes most often from a product naturally found in the bark of chestnut, oak, and hemlock trees.  Each week, the hide is exposed to a larger amount of tannin than the previous week, until enough tannin has been absorbed by the hides to complete the process.  Hides that have been vegetable tanned are used in clothing such as belts and hats.
2. Mineral tanning:  Also known as chrome tanning because chromium is commonly used in the tanning agent.  In this process, skins are soaked in a mixture of salt and acid, then in a solution of chromium and sulfate.  These ingredients thoroughly penetrate the hides in less than 24 hours.  Hides that have been chrome tanned produce more flexible leathers.  These materials are commonly found in purses, gloves, and shoes.
3. Combination-tanned leather:  The hides are vegetable tanned after they have been chrome tanned.

Down

Down is the soft layer of feathers found on the underside of a duck or goose.  Because of its reputation for being a good insulator, it is used in comforters, quilts, sleeping bags, jackets and pillows. 

Most commonly, down is obtained by plucking it directly from the animal.  Most birds will be plucked five or six times during their lifespan.

With very few exceptions, down is a by-product of the meat industry.  This means that the birds are not killed for their feathers, but rather for their meat.  Some commercial down is obtained from slaughtered birds.

Feathers

Feathers as fashion have come back in recent years.  Decorative feathers come from a variety of exotic birds, such as peacocks and ostriches.

History of feathers as fashion

The biggest feather trade was between 1870 and 1920.  During this time, millions of birds were killed for their feathers, the majority of these being white egrets and herons.  These were not used in pillows or bedding, but rather to decorate women's.  However, due to the large demand for ornament feathers, many birds became extinct by 1900.

In the late 1800s, the feather demand reached large scale.  "A single order of feathers to a dealer in London included 6,000 bird of paradise feathers, 40,000 hummingbird feathers, and 360,000 East Indian birds' feathers." (http://museum.gov.ns.ca)

Soon after, many influential people began to recognize that the feather trade was resulting in the extinction of many birds.  In an effort to prevent more extinctions, some of these people vowed to no longer wear feathers as a fashion statement.  Queen Alexandra made this claim in 1906, and Queen Mary got rid of all of her feather hats in 1911.  Canada banned the importation of any feathers except those from the ostrich and garden fowl in 1915. 

Ostriches have been hunted for thousand of years for their feathers, as the beautiful feathers they produce can be easily dyed.  The highest quality feathers come from the tails and wings of the male ostrich.  Ostrich feathers are popular since they are very durable, but soft at the same time. 

When feathers became popular in the late 1800s, ostriches faced extinction, as they were killed by the millions by hunters with modern weapons.  In acknowledgement of this problem, ostrich farms were invented, where the birds could be properly bred and slaughtered for their feathers, ensuring the survival of the species. 

While feather hats aren't as popular today as they were in the early 1900s, the majority of ostrich feathers are now used to produce feather dusters.  Ostrich feathers have an amazing clinging ability, making them excellent dusters.  Today, ostrich feathers are also used to make authentic feather boas.  These are most commonly found in theatrical performances, musicals, and night clubs.

Feathers can probably date back to the days of Native Americans.  Whether men in a tribe wore a single feather on a strip of leather wrapped around the head, or a long headdress trailing down the back, feathers were an important part of Native American culture.  The most common bird feather used by the Indians came from the eagle.

The most vibrant and most valued headdresses came from a tribe of South American Indians.  The Kayapo tribe constructed a style of headdress pictured on the right, which resembles a hoop.  They used the most illuminating feathers, most often from the macaw parrot, to produce these pieces. 

Another common way feathers are used as fashion is in masks.  Feather masks are popular today in New Orleans during the Mardi Gras celebration.  The celebrations started in New Orleans in the 1700s, when the French residents held elaborate balls and encouraged their guests to wear feather masks.  The tradition stayed throughout the years, and feather masks are still commonly worn for the celebration today.  An example is pictured at the left.

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Known as the "queen of fibers," silk has had the reputation of a luxurious fabric for centuries, and is one of the oldest textiles.  Made from the cocoons of silkworms, it is the strongest of all the natural fibers.  In fact, a thread of silk is stronger than the same size thread of certain kinds of steel..  The fabric, which is warmer than cotton, linen, and rayon, is extremely elastic.  When it is stretched, it will return to its original shape.

Fifty percent of the world's raw silk comes from China and Japan.

The Silkworm        

The material spun by silkworms raised on silk farms is known as cultivated silk.  Silkworms are categorized by the quality of silk they produce, the number of times they breed annually, and the types of leaves they eat.  The most common is the larva of Bombyx mori.

While Bombyx mori is no longer found in the wild, the domesticated species produces the finest silk known to man. 

Early in the summer, the female moth will lay between 300-500 eggs.  These eggs are so small that 35,000 weigh only one ounce.  The female moth will die after laying her eggs.

In captivity, the eggs are kept intact until the following spring, when they are warmed in an incubator.  After hatching, the larvae grow to 70 times their size at birth. 

The worms are ready to spin their cocoons when they are fully grown.  The worm will hang upside down and weave back and forth.  This movement causes fibroin, which is produced in the animal's silk glands, to be produced.  The substance will be spun around the entire worm.  Each cocoon is composed of a half-mile of silk.

Processing of silk

The production of cocoons for their fibers is known as sericulture.  Silk production takes place in factories called filatures.

1. Sorting:  The cocoons are sorted based on their size, shape and color.
2. Reeling:  The cocoons are boiled or steamed to soften the fibers.  The strands are then unwound and twisted or reeled together into threads known as raw silk.
3. Finishing processes:  In the final stages of silk production, the fiber may be dyed.  The silk is wound into small bundles known as books, and then the books are put into bales.  These bales, which weigh about 60 pounds each, are then shipped around the world.

History of silk

Silk production originated in China, as far back as 2640 B.C.  Legend states that Si-ling-chi, the wife of the emperor at that time, tested the use of the thread produced by the silkworm.  The then taught herself how to raise silkworm, and producing their fibers into garments for herself.  For this discovery, she was given the name "Seine-Than" which means "The Goddess of Silkworms."  Silk was considered so precious in China that the penalty for anyone caught exporting silkworm eggs was death.  In fact, silk literally became equivalent to gold.

Established in 139 B.C., the trade road which traveled from Eastern China to the Mediterranean became known as "Silk Road," as silk was the most important good to pass on that road at the time.  The Chinese had held onto their secret of where the mysterious silk garments came from for nearly 3,000 years.  However, according to legend, the Roman Emperor Justinian learned the secrets of sericulture from two Persian monks, who smuggled silkworms into his country hidden in a bamboo tube.

Throughout history, the United States has not been successful in producing silk.  In 1831, J.H. Cobb wrote a book on the process of sericulture, which captured the interest of many Americans.  People all across the country were purchasing lots of land and mulberry trees in an attempt to raise silkworms.  This sudden interest in sericulture became known as the "Mormus multicaulis craze."  However, it didn't take long for the farmers to learn that the high cost of labor greatly exceeded the profits of silk, and the industry in the U.S. quickly diminished.  However, today the U.S. is the leading manufacturer of silk products.

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