LHUP endorses a model for teacher education that has the teacher as a reflective decision-maker at its core, recognizing that teachers function in a changing society. Emphasis is placed on the teacher as a thoughtful, evaluative professional who takes action within a changing social, economic, technological, and professional environment. The teacher education programs at LHUP provide educational experiences to prepare future teachers who understand that productive students must engage in problem solving, fill leadership roles, and serve as cooperative group members within an environment that fosters the self-esteem of all involved. Our candidates know that effective teachers must continuously reflect on their actions as teachers. The concept of the reflective teacher relates well to the view of teacher as instructional decision-maker that was first developed in the late 1970's and continues to be discussed today. The instructional decision-maker must know what to teach and how to teach diverse learners in a variety of learning environments. Reflection includes action, and thus calls for decision-making on the part of the teacher. The reflective decision-maker, however, makes instructional decisions in a much more tentative way than a managerial decision-maker, considering a wider range of contextual factors, and maintaining a consciously critical attitude towards decisions. Although decision-makers must engage in reflection and revision, traditionally they have tended to see the range of reflection as being of narrower scope than do those who see reflection as the governing factor in teaching. To be effective as reflective decision-makers, candidates in the teacher education programs at LHUP must demonstrate knowledge and skills in four elements. Candidates need to know the content they teach; be able to implement a variety of teaching strategies; plan for instruction giving consideration to contextual factors; and be able to demonstrate professional teaching behaviors including self-evaluation, ethical teaching behaviors, and effective communication skills. In order to be successful as a reflective decision-maker, LHUP preservice teachers must have practice in decision-making and reflection as part of their educational experiences. The faculty at LHUP is committed to providing learning experiences that will equip our students with the knowledge and the experience to be reflective decision-makers.
We find ourselves in an age of educational reform in which the field of education is influenced by national and state governments, international comparisons, and various professional organizations. The world is shrinking due to constant technological advances, and recent history has shown us that humans are capable of affecting the global environment both positively and negatively. What then should students in schools be taught, and furthermore, what do teachers need to know in order to teach these students? To address these questions as they relate to teacher preparation at Lock Haven University, we receive guidance from numerous sources, including the Pennsylvania Department of Education, the United States Department of Education, and various national professional associations For example, the federal No Child Left Behind Act of 2002 (NCLB) requires local school districts to ensure that all teachers hired to teach core academic subjects are highly qualified.This legislation defines a "highly qualified teacher" as one with full certification, a bachelor's degree, and demonstrated competence in subject knowledge and teaching (U.S. Department of Education, 2002). NCLB legislation also requires states to test children in various core subject areas. The Pennsylvania Department of Education (PDE) established rigorous academic standards and assessments to evaluate student achievement through its Chapter 4 legislation. The academic standards therein describe the knowledge and skills which students will be expected to demonstrate before graduating from a public school in Pennsylvania, and encompass the following subject areas: Reading, Writing, Speaking and Listening; Mathematics; Science and Technology; Environment and Ecology; Social Studies (civics and government, geography, economics and history); Arts and Humanities; Career Education and Work; Health, Safety and Physical Education; Family and Consumer Science; and World Languages. In addition to PDE,national organizations such as the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics (NCTM), National Science Teachers Association (NSTA), and others are currently working to reform education in the United States.Many have published guidelines and standards not only for what school students should know and be able to do by the time they graduate from secondary schools, but also how instruction and teacher preparation should be conducted to achieve the visions of the various reform movements. In summarizing the current climate of reform, Borko and Putnam (1995) suggest:
Virtually all reform efforts are calling for changes in our educational system that will help students to develop rich understandings of important content, think critically, construct and solve problems, synthesize information, invent, create, express themselves proficiently, and leave school prepared to be responsible citizens and lifelong learners.
The National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE) recommends that student learning include not only basic skills but also the knowledge and skills necessary to succeed as a responsible citizen and contributor to the new economy. Curriculum integration has long been proposed as a way of organizing the "common learnings" or life skills considered essential for all citizens in a democracy (Vars & Beane, 2005). The intent is to help students make sense out of their life experiences and learn how to participate in a democracy (Beane, 1997). Much of this resonates with the philosophy espoused by John Dewey (1926), many years ago in Democracy and Education where he suggested that schools should produce young people who are ready to take their place in a democratic society.
Helping students develop rich understandings of important content requires teachers to possess understandings that go far beyond the knowledge and skills officially being taught. For example, many argue that teachers need to know about the subjects they teach (Anderson, 1991; Ball, 1991; Banks, 1971, 1991; Buchman, 1984; Grossman, 1990; McDiarmid, 1992; Shulman, 1986, 1987; Watts, 1972; Wilson, 1991).This means that they know about the creation, discovery, and testing of new knowledge; major debates and disagreements in the field; principle perspectives or "schools of thought"; how the field has developed; and key contributors to the discipline (Ball & McDiarmid, 1990; McDiarmid, 1992; Schwab, 1964; Shulman, 1986, 1987). The National Board (1989) presented its view of what teachers should know and be able to do; its convictions about what it values and believes should be honored in teaching:
The fundamental requirements for proficient teaching are relatively clear: a broad grounding in the liberal arts and sciences; knowledge of the subjects to be taught, of the skills to be developed, and of the curricular arrangements and materials that organize and embody that content; knowledge of general and subject-specific methods for teaching and for evaluating student learning; knowledge of students and human development; skills in effectively teaching students from racially, ethnically, and socioeconomically diverse backgrounds; and the skills, capacities and dispositions to employ such knowledge wisely in the interest of students.
To this end, all prospective teachers at LHUP are required to complete a rigorous program of general education studies at a high level of proficiency (minimum overall GPA of 3.0). Secondary education majors at LHUP complete what is nearly the equivalent of a pure degree in their chosen field in addition to the general education requirements with the same high level of expectation. Likewise, elementary, special education, and health and physical education majors complete very specialized coursework appropriate to their fields of licensure. Naturally, all education majors also engage in coursework in learning theory and pedagogy appropriate to their fields of licensure. Subject matter knowledge, while no guarantee of effective instruction, is nevertheless a necessary and critical component of reflective practice.
References
Anderson, C. W. (1991). Policy implications of research on science teaching and teachers' knowledge. In M. M. Kennedy (Ed.), Teaching academic subjects to diverse learners pp. 5-30). New York: Teachers College Press.
Ball, D. L. (1991).Teaching mathematics for understanding: What do teachers need to know about subject matter?In M. M. Kennedy (Ed.), Teaching academic subjects to diverse learners (pp. 63-83). New York: Teachers College Press.
Ball, D. L., & McDiarmid, G. W. (1990). The subject matter preparation of teachers. In R. Houston (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education (pp. 437-449). New York: Macmillan.
Banks, J. (1971). Relevant social studies for black pupils. In J. Banks & W. Joyce (Eds.), Teaching social studies to culturally different children (pp. 202-209). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Banks, J. (1991). Social science knowledge and citizenship education. In M. M. Kennedy (Ed.), Teaching academic subjects to diverse learners (pp. 117-128). New York: Teachers College Press.
Beane, James A. (1997). Curriculum integration: Designing the core of democratic education. New York: Teachers College Press.
Borko, H. & Putnam, R. T. (1995), Expanding a teacher's knowledge base, in Guskey & Huberman (Eds.),
Professional development in education: New paradigms and practices. Teachers College Press, New York.
Buchmann, M. (1984). The priority of knowledge and understanding in teaching. In L. G. Katz & J. D. Raths (Eds.), Advances in teacher education (Vol. 1, pp. 29-50). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Dewey, J. (1926 [1916]). Democracy and education: An introduction to the philosophy of education. New York: Macmillan.
Grossman, P. L. (1990). The making of a teacher: Teacher knowledge and teacher education . New York: Teachers College Press.
McDiarmid, G. W. (1992). The arts and sciences as preparation for teaching. Retrieved http://ncrtl.msu.edu/http/ipapers/html/ip923.htm
National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Policy statement: What teachers should know and be able to do. Retrieved http://www.nbpts.org/about/coreprops.cfm#introfcp
Schwab, J. J. (1964). The structures of the disciplines: Meanings and significances. In G. W. Ford & L. Pugno (Eds.), The structure of knowledge and the curriculum . Chicago: Rand McNally.
Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15 (5), 4-14.
Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-23.
Vars, G. F., & Beane, J. A. (2000, June). Integrative curriculum in a standards-based world. ERIC Digest EDO-PS-00-6.
Wilson, S. W. (1991). Parades of facts, stories of the past: What do novice history teachers need to know? In M. M. Kennedy (Ed.), Teaching academic subject matter to diverse learners (pp. 99-116). New York: Teachers College Press.
Recognizing
the deficiencies that would occur if content knowledge ("what to
teach") was all that was contained within a Conceptual Framework for
a teacher education program, this section describes LHUP's belief
that it is necessary to provide more than pure content
knowledge in the education of future teachers. Although strong
content knowledge and verbal skills have demonstrated research links
to higher student achievement, they may be necessary but not
sufficient conditions for quality teaching and learning. In
addition, the faculty at LHUP recognizes the increasingly important
role that technology and assessment have in the education of future
teachers. The faculty at LHUP believes that
attention to this element of the Conceptual Framework is vital to
candidates'growth in this area.
While educators and researchers have agreed that content knowledge influences student achievement, no evidence suggests that possessing content knowledge alone is enough to be an effective teacher (Berry, 2001; Wilson, Floden, & Ferrini-Mundy, 2002). In fact, some researchers have claimed that the connection between teachers'subject knowledge and student achievement is mixed, positively influencing student learning up to a certain level of basic competence but becoming less important after a certain point (Darling-Hammond, 2000; Monk, 1994).
Teacher education course work is sometimes more influential than extra subject matter coursework (Monk & King, 1994). Monk (1994) examined the connection between students'achievement and their teachers'coursework in teaching methods and found a positive correlation. Systematic study of learning processes results in more effective teaching behaviors and increases in student achievement (Munro, 1999). McDiarmid and Wilson's (1991) study demonstrated that, despite their subject matter knowledge, teachers who earned alternative certification had strongly held misconceptions about appropriate ways to teach the content and were unable to integrate their subject matter knowledge with teaching practices to allow for effective instruction. Ferguson and Womack (1993) found that the amount of education course work teachers completed explained about 16% of the variance in teaching performance, more variance than was accounted for from teachers'content knowledge.
More recent research by Wenglinsky (2002) revealed that the greatest influence on students'achievement comes from classroom practices and professional development that supports the students'efforts. Wenglinsky's research indicated "regardless of the level of preparation students bring into the classroom, decisions that teachers make about classroom practices can either greatly facilitate student learning or serve as an obstacle to it" (p.7). That is, teachers'pedagogical decisions and activities, separate from but related to teacher subject matter knowledge, independently affect student achievement.
Instructional technology is not only a legitimate discipline, but also an integral part of virtually every area of study and learning faced by today's students of all ages (Knapp and Glenn, 1996; Lever-Duffy, McDonald, & Mizell, 2003). Today's teachers are responsible for students who work and learn in a rapidly advancing, technological world. Reflective decision-makers use instructional media and technology to effectively facilitate planning, delivery, assessment, and reinforcement of student learning. It is therefore essential that reflective decision-makers have an evolving conceptual understanding and ongoing adaptability to emerging technologies (Galloway, J. P. & Blohm, P., 1997; Galloway, J. P., 1990).
Implementation of assessment-guided instruction is an extremely important practice and directly relates to appropriate pedagogy. Teachers systematically assess student progress by employing multiple authentic assessment strategies during all phases of instruction. Using this assessment data, teachers are able to make judgments about the relative progress of students in their classrooms and subsequently formulate plans for future lessons and activities. Teachers track what students are learning as well as what they, as teachers, are learning about their students and their pedagogy (Ormrold, 1998). Varying levels of assessments, including high stakes assessments, hold teachers accountable for the appropriateness and quality of instruction that students receive.
The LHUP teacher education programs have included several means to provide beginning teachers with an education that will allow them to make wise pedagogical decisions, appropriately incorporate technology into their teaching, and properly assess their students as well as themselves. Required courses include appropriately sequenced field experiences in which students can practice the techniques discussed. In addition, LHUP's programs require students to reflect on the theories presented and their implementation in the classroom.
References
Berry, B. (2001). No shortcuts to preparing good teachers. Educational Leadership, 58(8), 32-36.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). Retrieved http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v8n1
Ferguson, R. F., & Womack, S. T. (1993). The impact of subject matter and education coursework on teaching performance. Journal of Teacher Education. 44(1), 55-63.
Galloway, J. P. (1990). Misconceptions of computing concepts among preservice teachers. Journal of Research on Computing in Education, 22 (4), 413430.
Galloway, J. P. & Blohm, P. (1997). Planning for technology in the 21st century: Perspective, knowledge, commitment and process. Technology and Teacher Education Annual Journal, 1997. Charlottesville, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education.
Knapp, L. R. & Glenn, A. D. (1996). Restructuring schools with technology. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon.
Lever-Duffy, J., McDonald, J., & Mizell, A. (2003). Teaching and learning with technology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
McDiarmid, G. W., & Wilson, S. (1991) An exploration of the subject matter knowledge of alternative route teachers: Can we assume they know their subject? Journal of Teacher Education, 42(3), 32-35.
Monk, D. H. (1994). Subject matter preparation of secondary mathematics and science teachers and student achievement. Economics of Education Review, 13(2), 125-145.
Monk, D. H. & King, J. A. (1994). Multi-level teacher resource effects in pupil performance in secondary mathematics and science: The case of teacher subject matter preparation. In R. G. Ehrenberg (Ed.), Choices and consequences: Contemporary policy issues in education, (pp. 29-58). Ithaca, NY: ILR Press.
Munro, J. (1999). Learning more about learning improves teacher effectiveness. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 10(2), 151-171.
Ormrold, J. E. (1998). Educational psychology: Developing learners. Columbus, Ohio: McGraw-Hill.
Wenglinsky, H. (2002). How schools matter: The link between teacher classroom practices and student academic performance. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 10(12). Retrieved http://epaa.asu.edu/epaa/v10n12
Wilson, S. M., Flodin, R. E., & Ferrini-Mundy, J. (2002). Teacher preparation research: An insider's view from the outside. Journal of Teacher Education, 53(3), 190-204.
Candidates in the teacher preparation programs at LHUP must demonstrate proficiency in identifying important contextual factors that affect teaching and learning. Contextual factors include, but are not limited to, school and community environments; classroom environments; and the diversity of learners, including differences in race, socioeconomic level, language, gender, religion, learning styles, and sexual orientation.
Community and school populations, often defined by socioeconomic levels as well as racial and ethnic diversity, are important considerations in planning effective educational programs. Current research suggests that community characteristics have a measurable impact on child development and student learning (Holloway, 2004). Within the broad community context, educators need to identify the characteristics of families in the communities they serve. Since a primary learning environment for students is the home, teachers need to consider the home environments, the family structures, and the level of parental support when planning for instruction.Equally important is that teachers and students connect school experiences with outside learning activities (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). This connection allows students to see the value in the education received in the school environment, creating a basic understanding of how the school-based learning experiences can be applied in the home and in community settings. Through numerous required field experiences, including community service, teacher candidates at LHUP learn about and reflect upon the communities in which they will be teaching.
Classroom environment refers to the pervasive atmosphere, ambience, tone, or climate within a particular setting (Dorman, 2002). Dorman also indicates that strong evidence links positive psychological learning environments to increased student achievement. The teacher education programs at LHUP recognize the importance of identifying and modeling elements of positive learning environments for our teacher education candidates in an effort to increase learning outcomes. Creating a positive learning environment requires the classroom teacher to foster relationships with students that demonstrate acceptance of, and respect for their students. These relationships form the foundation of a classroom climate in which all students are encouraged to learn. This positive learning environment is further established when the classroom teacher constructs a learner-centered environment whereby students are prompted to explain and develop their own knowledge structures by predicting and explaining various situations (Bransford, Brown, & Cocking, 2000). Learner-centered environments require an understanding by the teacher of the students'knowledge, skills, and personal beliefs that are brought to the educational setting (Ladison-Billings, 1995). The teaching methods courses at Lock Haven University address learner-centered environments as a method of differentiating instruction in order to meet varying student needs. Teachers who strive for positive learner-centered environments are more culturally responsive, thereby maintaining students'cultural integrity while fostering academic success (Phuntsog, 1999).
Candidates in the teacher education programs at LHUP are prepared to create culturally responsive environments by receiving adequate knowledge about cultural differences and culturally relevant instructional practices, as well as completing required field experiences in diverse settings. From initial course work in education through student teaching, our teacher education candidates investigate and reflect upon the impact that race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, language, disability, socioeconomic status, interests, and learning styles have on the educational experiences of individual students. The recognition that learners come from diverse backgrounds and have diverse learning needs is important in planning effective educational experiences. In fact, teacher preparation programs need to focus on multidimensional teaching methods in order to reach all students in inclusive settings (Obiakor, 2001). LHUP strives to prepare teachers to teach diverse learners using a variety of teaching methods. According to Arends (2004), meeting the diverse needs of learners is a responsibility that educators must fulfill in order to ensure that every student has an equal opportunity to learn.
References
Arends, R. I. (2004). Learning to teach (6th ed.). Boston, MA: McGraw Hill.
Bransford, J. D., Brown, A.L., Cocking, R.R. (Eds.). (2000). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Chapter six: The design of learning environments. Washington, D.C, National Academy Press. 1-27.
Dorman, J. (2002). Classroom environment research: Progress and possibilities. Queensland Journal of Educational Research (18), 1-18.
Holloway, J. H. (2004). How the community influences achievement. Educational Leadership, (61), 8, 89-90.
Ladson-Billings, G. (2001). Crossing over to Canan: The journey of new teachers in diverse classrooms. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Obiakor, F. E. (2001). Multicultural education: Powerful tool for preparing future general and special educators. Teacher Education and Special Education (24), 3, 241-255.
Phuntsog, N. (1999). The magic of culturally responsive pedagogy: In search of the genie's lamp in multicultural education. Teacher Education Quarterly.
Lock Haven University's teacher education programs require that candidates consistently demonstrate professional behaviors and attitudes that are essential to the teaching profession. It is no longer sufficient for teachers to have knowledge and skills in academic subjects; they must also have employability skills (Wayda & Lund, 2005). Employability skills are those observable and measurable teacher behaviors such as punctuality and oral communication skills that often determine the success or failure of a beginning teacher (Goodlad, 2002). Developing professional behaviors, including dispositions, ethics, and caring communication skills, is an integral part of LHUP's teacher education programs.
Employability skills are determined by a person's professional disposition. According to Wayda and Lund (2005), a positive disposition toward being a teacher is indicated by a preservice teacher who values learning and knowledge, diversity, collaboration, professionalism, and personal integrity. The teacher education programs at LHUP recognize the importance of modeling and assessing candidate dispositions that we believe are necessary for employment in education. Examples of employability skills include but are not limited to initiative, dependability, commitment to the profession, interpersonal and oral communication skills, resourcefulness, and self-evaluation skills. These skills are necessary and valued skills of all teachers.
Research recommends that teachers develop the ability to identify, analyze, and resolve ethical issues that they face in the classroom, school, and community (Clever, Edwards, et.al., 2000; Benfu, 2000) and to plan for and teach strategies for moral development (Benninga, Berkowitz, Kuehn, & Smith, 2003; Bebeau, Rest, & Narvaez, 1999).
Professionalism also requires a commitment to being a life-long learner. Commitment to life-long learning is evident in those teachers who continuously self-reflect; accept feedback from mentors, peers, and supervisors; and seek professional development opportunities outside of the classroom. The concept of self-reflection is based on Dewey's theoretical perspective of critical inquiry and how it relates to practice (Van Gyn, 1996). Reflection allows the teacher to identify effective practices through a careful investigation of his or her own teaching experiences so that intellectual and professional growth may take place. Preservice teachers must develop the skill of self-reflection in order to continuously grow as professionals, especially within and beyond the university setting.
Research emphasizes the importance of expanding the teacher's knowledge of discipline and pedagogical skills through participating in professional development programs, as well as keeping abreast of new developments in the field by researching findings reported in current literature. Because we live in a changing society, life-long learning is essential for the on-going development of knowledgeable citizens (National Commission on Teaching, 1996; Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 1999).
Lock Haven University requires teacher candidates to demonstrate caring communication skills. These skills can be defined as the ability to recognize and respond to individual differences, needs, and desires of students; to display a genuine love of teaching with honor, respect, humor, enthusiasm; and to motivate, challenge and engage students (American Association of School Personnel Administrators, 1997). Effective teachers care for their students and recognize that students need to be aware that others care about them. In order for caring to be evident, teachers and students must effectively communicate their mutual consideration. According to Kessler (1999), teachers who care about their students help them to develop a sense of belonging to a community.
Rogers and Webb (1991) underscore the importance of caring by reporting that good teaching is inextricably linked to specific acts of caring. Teachers must develop a wide range of strategies to effectively communicate with students in the class, the parents in the home, the teachers and staff in the school, and the administrators in the school district. Notes, checklists, report cards, phone calls, and teacher-parent conferences provide a variety of communicative methods through which teachers demonstrate to all students that they are cared for in the classroom and beyond. Moreover, each day teachers need to provide a safe learning environment where students are valued for who they are and in which their individual perspectives are considered. Lock Haven University's teacher education programs are designed to develop the necessary dispositions, skills, and knowledge to prepare our teacher candidates to become effective, reflective practitioners.
References
American Association of School Personnel Administrators. (1997). Teacher of the future: A continuous cycle of improvement.
Bebeau, M.J., Rest, J.R., & Narvaez, D. (1999). Beyond the promise: A perspective on research in moral education. EJ587024.
Benfu, L. (2000) Ethics teaching in medical schools. The Hastings Report. 30(4)AN00930334. Retrieved February 28, 2005.
Benninga, J.S., Berkowitz, M., Kuehn, P., & Smith, K. (2003). The relationships of character education and academic achievement in elementary schools. Journal of Research in Character Education, 1(1), 17-30.
Darling-Hammond, L., & Sykes, G. (Eds.) (1999).Teaching as the learning profession. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Goodlad, J.(2002).Kudza, rabbits, and school reform. Phi Delta Kappa, 84 (1), 16-23.
Kessler, R.(1999).Nourishing students in secular schools.Educational Leadership,56(4).
National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. (1996).What matters most: Teaching for America's future.
Rogers, D., & Webb, J.(1991).The ethic of caring in teacher education.Journal of Teacher Education.42(3), 173-181.
VanGyn,G. (1996). Reflective practice: The needs of professions and the promise of cooperative education.Journal of Cooperative Education, 31(2-3), 103-131.
Wayda, V. & Lund, J. (2005).Assessing dispositions: An unresolved challenge in teacher education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 76 (1), 34-76.
Revalidated and adopted April 2005.